Asha Abdulla

Habiba Adan

Charlotte Akuko-Barfi

Nyambura Belcourt

Agnes Callimard

Regine Cirondeye

Fatou Dioubate

Mary Duku

Eno Egbo Egbo

Mariam Hussain

Veronique Kanku

Amresh Mebrahtu

Leteicia Msowoya

Marie-Claire Muamba

Molly Nakyonyi

Joyce Nsubuga

Kowser Omer

Nadifa Osman

Perez Oyugi

Amina Sharif

Regina Thompson

Tina Walusimbi

MEETING EMPLOYMENT NEEDS OF AFRICAN IMMIGRANT AND REFUGEE WOMEN

July 1994

1. Age:

1. 15-24
1. 25-34
2. 35-44
3. 45-54
4. 55 or over

2. What is your highest level of

education?

1. elementary
1. high school
2. community college
3. university
4. never went to school
5. arabic/Koranic school
6. other (specify)

3. Indicate the Canadian equivalent of the highest level of education you received before coming to Canada:

1. elementary
1. high school
2. community college
3. university
4. other (specify)

4. Country of birth? ______________________

5. What type of work did you do before coming to
Canada?

1. never worked
1. salaried worker such as teacher or government
   worker (formal economic sector -- specify)
2. non-salaried worker such as food vendor or
   farmer (informal sector -- specify)

6. Why did you come to Canada?

7. Did you enter Canada as an

1. independent immigrant
1. refugee
2. family, sponsored by _____________________
3. (specify husband, brother, father)
4. student or student's wife
5. visitor/work-permit

8. (Optional) What is your current status in Canada?

1. landed immigrant
1. citizen
2. visitor
3. work permit
4. refugee
5. other

9. (Optional) Did you have permission to work in Canada when you came?

1. yes
1. no
2. other (specify)

10. What did you expect about work in Canada before you came?

1. expected high-paying job
1. to work in my field of expertise
2. to be self-employed
3. to take first job offered and move up
4. did not expect to work
5. did not know what to expect
6. other (specify)

11. Once in Canada, what work did you expect to do?

1. clerical or sales work (white collar)
1. factory work
2. managerial or professional work such as teaching or nursing
3. service work such as cook, waitress, or cleaner
4. have own business
5. home-maker
6. other (specify) ___________________________

12. In the process of coming to Canada, did anyone (immigration officials, friends) speak to you about the difficulties of finding work?

1. yes (specify who) ________________________
1. no

13. Did anyone tell you that employers' prefer to hire people with "Canadian experience" (people who have had a salaried job in Canada)?

1. yes (specify who) ________________________
1. no

14. In the process of coming to Canada were you given information about:

1. language training
1. training courses required for employment
2. counselling and support services relating to
   employment
3. was not given such information
4. other (specify) _________________________

15. How long have you lived in Canada:

1. 1 year or less
1. 1-3 years
2. 4-6 years
3. 7-9 years
4. 10 years or more

16. What is your marital status?

1. never married
1. married
2. widowed
3. separated
4. divorced

17. Who do you live with?

1. live alone
1. adults (specify number and relationship)
2. children 18 years or less (specify number)

18. How was your education evaluated in Canada?

1. less than the Canadian equivalent
1. equal to the Canadian equivalent
2. more than the Canadian equivalent
3. other (specify)

19. Where and by whom were your credentials and experience evaluated?

1. overseas visa office/consulate
1. Canadian entry-point (Pearson airport)
2. other (specify)

20. Were you told why your credentials and qualifications were not accepted as Canadian equivalents?

1. yes
1. no

21. Were you given useful information about how to meet Canadian employment requirements?

1. yes
1. no

22. (Optional) Do you feel the procedures used to evaluate your education and professional credentials were fair?

1. yes
1. no
2. other (specify)

23. (Optional) Please comment on how your credentials and qualifications were evaluated.

________________________________________

________________________________________

________________________________________

________________________________________

24. Have you attended language classes since coming to Canada?

1. yes
1. no

25. How long did you attend language classes?

1. less than 6 months
1. 6 months to 1 year
2. more than 1 year
3. other (specify)

________________________________________

26. Did you attend language classes

1. full-time
1. part-time

27. How did you hear about language classes?

1. through an immigration official
1. through friends and relatives
2. through an African/immigrant women's organization
3. through a religious/charitable organization
4. other (specify)

28. Were the language classes free?

1. yes
1. no

29. Who sponsored the language classes?

1. federal/ provincial government
1. board of education
2. charitable/non-profit organization
3. other (specify)

30. Was free daycare available during class?

1. yes
1. no

31. Who took care of your children?

_______________________________________

32. Was the language training you received useful?

1. yes
1. no

33. Why wasn't the language training useful?

1. too short to acquire language skills
1. did not lead to competency
2. did not lead to employment
3. poorly organized
4. not enough interaction with native English-speakers
5. other (specify)

34. How well do you know English?

1. very well
1. moderately well
2. not well at all

35. Do you speak English with an accent?

1. yes
1. no
2. I don't know

36. Has your accent been a barrier to your getting work?

1. yes
1. no

37. How much of a barrier has it been?

1. a slight barrier
1. a major barrier

38. What strategies do you use when people have trouble understanding your English?

1. smile and repeat slowly
1. ask someone else to explain or translate
2. encourage people to understand and rephrase
3. other (specify)

39. Did you want to get more education or employment training when you came to Canada?

1. yes
1. no

40. Were you aware of any African or immigrant women's agencies offering information and services about job training?

1. yes
1. no

41. Have you gotten more education or employment training in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

42. Please specify the education/ employment training you have received?

1. on-the-job training
1. technical training leading to a diploma
2. academic training
3. co-op training
4. other (specify)

43. Who advised you to get training?

1. CEC counsellor
1. friends/relatives
2. counsellor at an Africa/ immigrant women's agency (specify)
3. other (specify)

44. Did your education or employment training result in job placement?

1. yes
1. no

45. Why or why not?
________________________________

46. Do you feel that the job training you've had meets your employment needs?

1. yes
1. no

47. Have your ever looked for a job in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

48. Have you ever been interviewed for a job in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

49. How did you prepare for the job interview?

1. advice from friends/relatives
1. counseling from an agency
2. researched the potential employer
3. other (specify)

50. Were you offered the job?

1. yes
1. no

51. How long did it take you to get your first job in Canada?

1. 0-6 months
1. 7 months to 1 year
2. 1-2 years
3. over 2 years

52. Which of the following helped you get your first job?

1. personal efforts (specify)
1. friends or relatives
2. African organization (specify)
3. immigrant women's organization (specify)
4. Canada Employment Centre
5. private employment agency
6. religious/charitable organization (specify)
7. newspaper advertisement
8. other (specify)

53. What was your job?
__________________________________

54. Did your first job include benefits (health, dental, group insurance, unemployment insurance)?

1. yes
1. no

55. Were you:

1. asked to sign a contract?
1. paid in cash?
2. asked for your SIN number?
3. other (specify)

56. How long did you work at your first job?

1. less than 6 months
1. 6 months to 1 year
2. 1 - 2 years
3. 2 - 5 years
4. more than 5 years

57. What other jobs have you had since coming to Canada?

________________________________________

________________________________________

________________________________________

________________________________________

58. What did you do to get "Canadian experience"?

1. volunteer work
1. apprenticeship training
2. worked legally
3. took the first job I could get
4. worked illegally
5. other (specify)

59. Have you ever resigned from a job in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

60. Did you resign for any of the following reasons?

1. The pay was too little.
1. I wanted to stay home with my children/ lack of childcare.
2. I wanted to go to school.
3. My husband did not want me to work.
4. racial insults.
5. sexual harassment
6. other (specify)

61. Have you ever lost a job in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

62. Did you lose your job for any of the following reasons?

1. business was slack
1. end of contract
2. language problems
3. lateness at work
4. pregnancy
5. other (specify)

63. Have you experienced work related discrimination on the basis of any of the following?

1. national origin/race
1. age
2. gender/having children
3. accent
4. religion
5. marital status
6. disability
7. no, never
8. other (specify)

64. Are you currently employed?

1. yes
1. no

65. Who takes care of your children when you are working?

1. myself
1. a relative
2. a neighbour
3. daycare centre
4. I do not need daycare
5. other (specify)

66. Are you employed:

1. full-time
1. part-time
2. self-employed
3. other (please specify)

(If currently employed full-time or part-time, go on to question 67; if currently self-employed, skip to question 96.)

67. Are you satisfied with working (part-time/full-time)?

1. yes
1. no

Please elaborate: ____________________________

68. Does your present job correspond to your education and experience?

1. exactly
1. somewhat
2. not at all

69. Why not at all? ________________________________________

70. What has prevented you from finding a job in the area of your training and experience?

1. can't speak English well
1. professional qualifications not recognized in Canada
2. jobs not available due to recession
3. overqualified for the available jobs
4. other (specify)

71. Estimated annual (household) income

1. under $12,000
1. $12,000 - 19,999
2. $20,000 - 29,999
3. $30,000 - 39,999
4. $40,000 and over

72. Have you been trained on the job?

1. yes
1. no

73. Is the work you are doing now meeting with your level of education/training and expectations?

1. yes
1. no

Please elaborate: ____________________________

74. Describe your present job:

1. repetitive
1. varied
2. routine
3. creative
4. other (specify)

75. Describe your present working environment:

1. safe
1. unsafe

76. What are your work hours?

1. days
1. afternoon shift
2. nights
3. other (specify)

77. What is your relationship with your co-workers?

1. pleasant
1. neither pleasant nor unpleasant
2. unpleasant
3. work alone
4. other (specify)

78. Is your present employment permanent and long-term?

1. yes
1. no

79. If not, why? ________________________________________

80. Are job benefits (dental insurance, UI) included in your present pay package?

1. yes
1. no (specify):

81. Do you belong to a union?

1. yes
1. no

82. What are the chances for advancement or better pay?

1. high
1. average
2. low
3. other (specify)

83. Are you satisfied with your present job?

1. yes
1. no

84. Why or why not? ________________________________________

85. Why are you currently unemployed? ________________________________________

86. Which of the following reasons are preventing you from getting a job?

1. not familiar with job search techniques
1. lack Canadian work experience
2. lack qualifications
3. lack network connections
4. don't speak English well
5. jobs not available due to recession/internal hiring
6. cultural/religious norms
7. other (specify)

87. What efforts have you made to secure a job?

1. contacted a Canada Employment Centre
1. asked friends and relatives to keep their eye open for me
2. contacted a private employment agency
3. contacted an African/immigrant women's agency (specify)
4. contacted a religious/charitable agency (specify)
5. done volunteer work
6. answered newspaper adds
7. other (specify)

88. Have you been called in for a job interview?

1. yes
1. no

89. When were you interviewed?

1. in the last month
1. in the last 3 months
2. in the last 6 months
3. in the last year?
4. other (specify)

90. Why do you think you were not hired for the job for which you were interviewed?

1. do not have Canadian experience
1. qualifications not found suitable
2. language problems
3. racial discrimination
4. gender discrimination
5. other (specify)

91. What assistance do you need to help you find work?

1. language training
1. education/ skills training
2. access to daycare
3. training in job search techniques
4. none of the above
5. other (specify)

92. Which of the following will you do to solve your unemployment problem and get work?

1. switch careers/jobs
1. establish own business
2. acquire additional language/ skills training
3. volunteer work
4. take part-time work
5. other (specify)

93. Would you be willing to take a job that pays less than government assistance (unemployment insurance, welfare)?

1. yes
1. no

94. Why or why not? ________________________________________

95. How have you been supporting yourself since becoming unemployed?

1. personal savings
1. help from friends
2. unemployment insurance/welfare
3. supported by husband
4. unreported earnings from informal work
5. charitable organizations
6. loans from informal sources
7. other (specify)

96. What do you do as a self-employed person?

____________________________________

97. Are you the only owner of your self-employment business?

1. yes
1. no

98. Are you in partnership with others?

1. yes (specify)
1. no

99. Do you have employees?

1. yes (specify number)
1. no

100. How long have you been self-employed?

1. under 1 year
1. 1-2 years
2. 2-5 years
3. over 5 years

101. Why did you decide to become self-employed?

1. to realize a long-time dream
1. could not find paying work
2. wanted to be my own boss
3. dissatisfied with former job
4. other (specify)

102. As a self-employed person, which setting do you work in?

1. home
1. office
2. commercial building/store
3. market place (e.g. Kensington market)
4. other (specify)

103. Who are your clients?

1. individuals
1. organizations

104. Are these individuals

1. mostly people from your country
1. mostly Africans
2. mostly blacks, both African and non-African
3. all kinds of people, Canadian and non- Canadian
4. other (specify)

105. Are these organizations

1. government agencies
1. non-government agencies
2. private sector organizations
3. industrial organizations
4. ethno-cultural organizations
5. other (specify)

106. Where did you get start-up capital?

1. personal savings/inheritance
1. loan from friends/relatives
2. government loan
3. commercial loan
4. other (specify)

107. Did you receive assistance from the government in setting up your business?

1. yes
1. no
2. other (specify)

108. Is your business registered?

1. yes
1. no

109. When did you register your business? _______________________________________

110. Is your business registered as:

1. self-owned
1. a partnership (specify)
2. a corporation
3. other

111. (Optional) Do you pay tax?

1. yes
1. no

112. Approximately how much do you earn, after expenses, from your business on a monthly basis?

1. under $500
1. $500 - $1000
2. $1000 - $1,500
3. $1,500 - $2,000
4. over $2,000

113. Do you have other sources of income?

1. yes
1. no

114. Please estimate your total annual income from all sources:

1. under $12,000
1. $12,000 - 19,999
2. $20,000 - 29,999
3. $30,000 - 39,999
4. $40,000 or over

115. Who does your accounting and/or keeps your business records?

_______________________________________

116. Are your self-employment earnings essential for household upkeep?

1. yes
1. no

117. How do you manage?

_______________________________________

118. What are the benefits of being self-employed?

1. earn money while taking care of my children
1. own boss
2. work at own pace
3. autonomy/independence
4. other (specify)

119. What are the major disadvantages of being self-employed?

1. keeping business and household accounts separated
1. no time for social life
2. little time for my family and children
3. seasonal highs and lows
4. lack of capital
5. other (specify)

120. What are your future plans with respect to being self-employed?

1. expand business
1. incorporate business
2. move business from home to store, office, or market place
3. close business
4. other (specify)

122. Have your expectations about employment opportunities in Canada been met?

1. yes
1. no

Please elaborate: ___________________________

123. Has "over-qualification" been a barrier to getting a job in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

124. Have you had too look for work different from the work you are qualified for?

1. yes
1. no

125. If yes, specify: _______________________________________

126. Have you found looking for work in Canada an equitable process?

1. yes
1. no

127. Why or why not? _____________________

128. Do you think African men find work in Canada more easily than African women?

1. yes
1. no

129. If yes, which of the following reasons apply:

1. Canadians expect African men to work here.
1. It is easier for African men to look for work
   because they do not have childcare and other household responsibilities.
2. African women generally have less education than African men.
3. Canadians expect African wives to stay at home.
4. Many African men want their wives to stay home.
5. Canadians do not understand the importance for African women of having their own income.
6. other (specify)

130. Do you think African women face special problems getting work in Canada?

1. yes
1. no

131. If yes, which of the following reasons apply:

1. Canadians do not understand African gender roles.
1. no network connections
2. lack of childcare
3. cultural/religious norms
4. gender discrimination
5. racial discrimination
6. Canadians' stereotypes about African women
7. other (specify)

132. What strategies do African women use to overcome employment problems?

_______________________________________

133. How do you overcome your employment problems?

_______________________________________

134. In general do you feel that with time Canadians will:

1. be more open to you as a candidate for work b. be less open to you as a candidate for work c. exhibit no change in openness
1. be more open to your children than to you with respect to work opportunities
2. erect similar barriers with respect to your children's work

THANK YOU!

The delivery of employment services, language and skills training programmes through an array of institutions in Metropolitan Toronto -- Canada Employment Centres (CECs), boards of education, private schools, community colleges, universities, and community-based organizations -- has given rise to an occupational culture in which agencies using a community-based model of employment service and training programme delivery has increased rapidly in the last two decades. African women are more likely to approach community-based agencies than CECs for employment services and training programmes. Front-line workers at community-based agencies who are in daily contact with African women looking for work know a great deal about the employment and training needs and experiences of African women clients. Though community-based agencies are independent of the government, most are heavily dependent on government funding. The types of training programmes they offer, therefore, are conditioned by government funding priorities (Agnew, forthcoming). Thus, community-based agencies can be said to mediate between the women who are agency clients and the state, which funds agency programmes.

Community-based training is:

a model of education which is collaborative, learner-centred and concentrates on imparting work skills, living skills, and job-finding skills so that trainees can find and maintain employment (Employer's Guide to Community-Based Training, 1991).

The objectives of several community-based training agencies that responded to our questionnaire exemplify this philosophy. For example, the African Training and Employment Centre (ATEC) provides "training and assist(s) African newcomers in cultural, social, economic and political adaptation and integration into Canadian life", while the Centre for Advancement in Work and Living (CAWL) provides "newcomers facing barriers to employment with the necessary counselling and training to enable them to find and keep jobs" and Skills for Change exists "to empower immigrants and refugees through training and associated programmes to participate effectively in the work place and wide community.

In 1994, 7,114 people on social assitance, including many visible minority women, were trained at community-based agencies. Of 10,260 non Unemployment-Insurance recipients who received training through federally funded programmes in Ontario, 55 percent were clients of community-based agencies and 45 percent attended sessions administered by school boards, community colleges and private for-profit establishments (ONESTeP 1995).

As a model of employment service and training delivery to immigrant women, the trend to community-based agencies reflects both the effort to meet the needs of Toronto's increasingly cosmopolitan population and the influence of the women's movement on social policy thinking in the 1970s. This thinking criticized old-line agencies for not adequately meeting the needs of immigrant and refugee women. Thus, agencies whose purpose was to serve immigrant and refugee women, as well as agencies established by particular small, linguistically and culturally distinctive ethno-cultural groups, began to appear in the late 1970's and early 1980's. When soliciting funding, these new agencies argued that they were better able to serve their ethnocultural clients' needs than older, main-stream agencies, because they could offer services in clients' languages and better articulate the needs of their specific clientele for community education, development, and empowerment (Riverdale Immigrant Women's Centre -- 1993 Annual Report). Rather than serving clients in particular neighbourhoods, as the older agencies tended to do, these new agencies served clients who came from the metropolitan area as a whole.

The first agencies initiated specifically to meet women's needs were Opportunity for Advancement (OFA) and Times Change, both of which date from 1974. OFA originated as a life-skills course taught at Humber College to meet "the special needs of mothers on social assistance who were considering a return to school or employment". Incorporated in 1977, OFA works from an explicitly feminist philosophy: "immigrant or women of colour" are among the clients with whom OFA works "to achieve greater economic sufficiency" (Opportunity for Advancement -- 1994 brochure). Times Change Women's Employment Centre began as a Canada Employment and Immigration Centre (CEIC) employment outreach programme. After undertaking research to assess "The Employment Counselling Needs of Women of African and South Asian Heritage" (Ubochi 1990), Times Change changed its image to reflect the city's more cosmopolitan character. Its current objectives are to "serve women who experience barriers to employment due to years in the unpaid labour force, age, racial discrimination, lack of Canadian experience...and other factors" (Times Change -- 1994 brochure).

The Immigrant Women's Job Placement Centre (IWJPC), formed in 1978, has initiated a number of innovative training programmes for immigrant women. Many foreign-trained women engineers have found employment in their professions after being trained in the IWJPC's course in Computer Assisted Drafting and Design (CADD), which IWJPC has offered for the past ten years. In the last two years, the IWJPC has offered training to immigrant women interested in Small Business Entrepreneurship.

The Learning Enrichment Foundation (LEF), established in 1979 and now one of the largest community-based training agencies in Metro Toronto, is located in the City of York, a cachement area for African immigrants (see below).

The Centre for Advancement in Work and Living (CAWL), created in 1980, offers a variety of employment services and training programmes to women, one of which, the Independent Living Skills programme, is an effective bridging programme which has facilitated several African women's entry into the labour force.

Three agencies which work with African women date from 1983 -- Skills for Change, Accessible Community Counselling and Employment Services (ACCES), and the Coalition of Visible Minority Women (CVMW). Skills for Change, organized to provide settlement services to Indochinese women, has become one of the largest agencies currently offering employment services and training programmes. Two African women are among those who have received the Skills for Change "New Pioneer Award" for community service (Joyce Nsubuga in 1993 and Kowser Omer in 1994). Accessible Community Counselling and Employment Services (ACCES), created to provide "vocational assistance to adult Ontarians from diverse communities who are facing barriers to employment", provides counselling services and workshops in job-search techniques. The CVMW celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1993. Since 1989, 20 foreign-trained nurses per year have participated the Coalition of Visible Minority Women's English as a Second Language (ESL) nursing pre-certification course.

Rexdale Microskills, established in 1984 to meet the employment and training needs of immigrant and refugee women, also celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1994. Today one of its largest client groups is Somali women who have settled in its cachement area. Through her work with the Province of Ontario Labour Relations Development Board, Rexdale Microskills' Executive Director, Kay Blaire, has taken leadership with respect to promoting the interests of "visible minorities" in the labour force.

The employment barriers African women face are similar to those faced by West Indians, whose migration to Canada in the 1960's and 1970's preceded that of most Africans, and Africans have benefited from the experiences and work of dynamic West Indian women who have worked to promote training programmes for black and other visible minority women. As the number of Africans in Metro Toronto grew in the 1980s, however, Africans found it necessary to create African organizations to meet their own settlement, training and employment needs.

Founded in 1984, The Canadian African Newcomer Aid Centre of Toronto (CANACT) was the first African-created agency to respond specifically to Africans' settlement needs. By 1995, CANACT was supplementing its settlement services with an employment service component which included pre-employment counselling, LINC courses, and an ESL course with a job-placement component. Serving Africans in Mississauga, a second African settlement organization, African Community Services of Peel, was created in 1993.

The African Training and Employment Centre (ATEC) was created in 1988 on the recommendation of CANACT to provide specific skills training and employment services to Africans. ATEC has experienced a number of internal organizational problems. Under new leadership in 1994, it moved to new premises and had begun to increase its services. Though a large percentage of its clients are women, ATEC no longer serves an exclusively African clientele.

LEF has pioneered the promotion and delivery of training programmes and employment services to Africans and to women. The African Bridging Programme (ABP) was established in June 1990 as an affiliate of LEF's Job Opportunities for You (JOY). During its short existence, the ABP's four African staff worked exclusively with African clients, 79 percent of whom were women, in a programme which included language and life skills training as well as job placement. When the programme ended in 1993 due to shortage of funding, the ABP staff was re-integrated into LEF. LEF's challenge of Canada's Charter of Human Rights, described in Chapter 3, resulted in the creation of Language Instruction to New Canadians (LINC).

Toronto Community Training and Social Services (TCTS) maintains and operates a "free twenty-four hour development and training centre for chronically unemployed" in the Regent Park area (individuals receive computer instruction). TCTS was initiated in 1990 by Princess Victoria Chito Agulefo, who came to Canada from Nigeria at the age of 14. Formerly called the Community Training and Business Centre and housed at the Fred Victor Mission, TCTS has benefited from the support of the United Church of Canada. TCTS occupied new premises in 1994. In 1995, it was seeking long-term funding to provide computer training and other social and business-related services.

Many francophone African women frequent the employment service initiated in 1991 by the Conseil des Organisations Francophone de Toronto Metropolitain (COFTM).

English language classes are offered by a variety of institutions in Metro Toronto -- the boards of education, non-profit service agencies, the Metro Toronto Labour Council, community-based agencies and some community colleges. Women who need literacy training can enroll in the Adult Basic Literacy (ABLE) programme offered through the boards of education and/or benefit from tutoring services through non-profit organizations such as ABC, Alpha Toronto and the Canadian Multilingual Literacy Centre.

Immigrant women and refugee women, but not refugee claimants, are eligible for 600 hours of free English or French classes (the equivalent of 6 months full-time) through Language Instruction to New Canadians (LINC). After their language skills are assessed at the LINC Assessment Centre, students are then placed in classes at one of three levels. LINC students do not have to be destined for the labour force. They do not get a stipend to attend classes, but they are eligible for a transportation allowance. Those who are supported through Immigrant Settlement Adjustment Programme (ISAP) are eligible for free daycare; those on welfare are eligible for subsidized daycare funded through Metro Social Services. LINC teaches life skills and does referrals and counselling in addition to teaching English.

Newcomers who complete LINC can build upon their basic language skills by pursuing instruction in "life after LINC" programmes administered by community-based agencies, high school night programmes, and community colleges. LINC personnel urge participants to enroll in such additional language programmes.

Because most women need to enter the labour force as soon as possible, they cannot pursue English classes full-time after LINC. For a small number, however, LINC functions as a "feeder" for access to employment-related or "Labour Market Language Training" (LMLT) which enables them to get 300 additional hours of language training compressed into a ten-week period. Approximately 20 percent of those who complete Level 3 LINC gain access to LMLT programmes Since LMLT's mandate is to prepare students for labour force participation (in contrast to LINC's mandate), LMLT classes are funded by Human Resources Development Canada and administered through local CECs. LMLT students get an allowance paid by the CEC. LMLT includes a job placement component; an agency offering LMLT must place 70 percent of its students to be eligible for funding. Upon completing a 10- (formerly 12-) week LMLT course, however, most participants are not job ready. Whether or not a woman participates in LMLT, she can continue to study English as a second language (ESL) at night through the Boards of Education and/or in ESL linked skills development courses, such as training in WP 5.1 or Lotus, offered at many locations. ESL-linked skills development courses are generally 8 to 10 weeks long. Since people want to attend school until they can find a job, the recession has resulted in an increased demand for English language instruction (1994 Summary Report, LINC Consultations).

Anecdotal data suggests that English-language instruction beyond LINC is less accessible to francophone African women than to other African women. A woman who was a francophone African medical doctor went with a Yugoslavian girlfriend to register for TOEFL training. After being tested, both were told that their results were satisfactory, but only the Yugoslavian woman was permitted to start immediately. The francophone African woman was told to call back some months later.

Language classes provide individuals with the opportunity to gain basic language skills relatively efficiently, but research shows that it takes most adults three years to gain English language competency. For this reason, some language programme deliverers refer to LINC as a "band-aid" measure. Many professional women have found that the ESL course level is too low to provide them with the level of English needed in the workplace. There is a need for in-class instruction to be complemented by the opportunity to speak English outside the classroom.

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