TABLE
OF CONTENTS
1.
PROLOGUE
Beginning
With Myself..........................................................................................
1.
Why
My Own Experiences.................................................................................
12.
The
Role of Personal/Subjective Evaluations.................................................
13.
The
Demands and Expectations of Society, Home and Community...........
14.
The
Importance of Power and Status Differences..........................................
17.
2.
INTRODUCTION
Framing
the Problem.........................................................................................
20.
The
Available Literature.....................................................................................
20.
The
Lack of a Community Focus......................................................................
22.
The
Lack of a Participatory Framework..........................................................
24.
The
Lack of a Connection to Theory................................................................
25.
Statement
of the Problem..................................................................................
27.
Research
Questions..........................................................................................
27.
The
Study............................................................................................................
28.
Contribution
to Theory........................................................................................
30.
Implications.........................................................................................................
31.
3.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Introduction..........................................................................................................
32.
Academic
Problems of Luso‑Canadian Children
in
the Toronto Public School System.........................................................
32.
The
Call for Answers and Action......................................................................
40.
The
Portuguese‑Canadian Coalition for Better Education............................
45.
Summary.............................................................................................................
48.
4.
THE LITERATURE ON THE ACADEMIC UNDERACHIEVEMENT OF
PORTUGUESE‑CANADIAN YOUTH
The
Lack of Available Material.........................................................................
49.
The
Three Types of References.......................................................................
49.
The
Scholarly General References and the Non‑Scholarly Literature.......... 52.
Common
Explanations for Academic Underachievement in the
Scholarly
General Literature and in the Non‑Scholarly References........
52.
The
General Literature.......................................................................................
55.
Refuting
Some of the Explanations for Underachievement...........................
79.
Summary
of General Literature.........................................................................
80.
Empirical
Studies on Luso‑Canadian Youth...................................................
81.
Limitations
of Existing Empirical Studies......................................................
101.
Summary...........................................................................................................
104.
5.
THE RESEARCH ON MINORITY ACADEMIC UNDERACHIEVEMENT
Introduction........................................................................................................
105.
The
Debate on Minority Academic Underachievement...............................
106.
The
Microethnographies.................................................................................
106.
Sociological
Research....................................................................................
108.
Critique
of Microethnographic Approaches..................................................
109.
The
"Macro" Approach: John Ogbu's "Cultural Ecological
Theory
of School Performance" (or, "Caste" Theory)......................
111.
Community
Forces Acting Upon Minority Groups................
112.
"Autonomous",
"Voluntary" and "Castelike" Minority
113.
Differences
Between "Voluntary" and "Involuntary" Minorities 114.
Consequences
of Different Styles of Cultural Differences..
116.
The
Responses of "Microethnograpers" and Other Researchers..........
118.
Attempts
to Unify the Field..............................................................................
120.
The
Call for More Interdisciplinary, Ethnographic
and
Community‑based Research............................................................
121.
Summary...........................................................................................................
122.
6.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Previous
Research..........................................................................................
123.
Research
Directions........................................................................................
123.
The
Need for Community Control...................................................................
124.
Questions
in this Study....................................................................................
124.
A
Participatory Framework.............................................................................
125.
What
is Participatory Research?...................................................................
125.
The
Techniques of Participatory Research...................................................
127.
Goals
of Participatory Research....................................................................
128.
Assumptions
of Participatory Research........................................................
129.
Role
of the Formally‑Trained Researcher.....................................................
130.
Validity
and Replicability.................................................................................
130.
Bias...................................................................................................................
131.
7.
METHODOLOGY
The
Portuguese‑Canadian National Congress............................................
132.
Rationale
for the Study....................................................................................
132.
Preliminary
Activities.......................................................................................
133.
Priorities‑Setting
Meeting With the Congress Directors..... 133.
Creation
of a Community Steering Committee....................
134.
General
Objectives..........................................................................................
135.
Community
Control and Participation............................................................
135.
The
Methods Utilized.......................................................................................
136.
The
Questionnaire....................................................................
136.
Goals.............................................................................
136.
Distribution....................................................................
136.
Translation
into English and French...........................
137.
Response......................................................................
137.
Coding...........................................................................
137.
Identification
of important issues................................
138.
Profile
of resondents and
patterns of access to community services.....................................................
138.
Focus
Groups...........................................................................
136.
Goals.............................................................................
140.
Focus
group questions................................................
140.
Training
of moderators and secretaries....................
141.
Recruitment
table.........................................................
141.
Supporting
material.....................................................
142.
Budget...........................................................................
142.
Review
of census 1991 Canada Data...................................
142.
Media
Campaign.....................................................................
143.
Newsletter.................................................................................
143.
Limitations
of the Study...................................................................................
143.
Questionnaire
Limitations.......................................................
145.
Focus
Groups Limitations.......................................................
147.
Ethical
Considerations and Consent.............................................................
148.
8.
STATISTICAL PROFILE OF THE COMMUNITY
Population
Numbers........................................................................................
149.
Age
Distribution...............................................................................................
151.
Education..........................................................................................................
153.
Income...............................................................................................................
156.
Summary...........................................................................................................
161.
9.
RESULTS
Introduction........................................................................................................
162.
Setting
a Priority on Education.......................................................................
163.
Priorities
Identified in the Questionnaire...............................
164.
Priorities
Identified in the Focus Groups...............................
167.
The
Community's Educational Marginalization...........................................
167.
The
Academic Underachievement of Luso-Canadian Youth
169.
Luso-Canadian
Youth are Dropping‑out in Disproportionate
Numbers........................................................................
170.
Few
Luso-Canadian Students are Entering Into Post‑Secondary
Education,
Especially the Academic Streams......... 171.
The
Community is Undergoing Economic Marginalization
and
Social Reproduction.........................................................
171.
The
Lack of English‑or French-Language Skills, Amongst
the
First Generation.................................................................
173.
The
Community's Economic Marginalization..............................................
175.
The
High Rate of Unemployment/Lack of Jobs....................
176.
The
Concentration of Luso-Canadians in Low-Paying,
Unskilled,
Low-Status Jobs.....................................................
178.
Many
Luso-Canadians are Experiencing
Financial
Difficulties.................................................................
179.
Luso-Canadian
Workers are not Upgrading their Skills or
Entering
Into More Specialized Areas of
Traditional
Employment...........................................................
180.
Portuguese-Canadians
are Being Disproportionately
Affected
by Disadvantaging Labour Laws............................
181.
There
are Disproportionately High Numbers of
Disabled
Workers in the Luso‑Canadian Community.........
182.
Portuguese-Canadian
Youth are not Entering Into
"Non-Traditional"
Jobs.........................................................
182.
Luso‑Canadian
Students Fear that they Will not be Able
to
Find Suitable Employment After Graduating....................
183.
The
Relative Weakness of the
Luso-Canadian
Business Community...................................
184.
The
Community's Social Marginalization.....................................................
185.
The
Lack of Integration in Canadian Society........................
186.
Conflict
and Lack of Communication Between
Portuguese-Canadian
Parents and Youth.............................
188.
Differences
in Culture, or "Mentality" Between
Luso-Canadian
Parents and Youth........................................
188.
Difficulty
in Communication and Understanding
Between
Luso-Canadian Parents and Youth........................
189.
The
Rebellion of Some Luso-Canadian Youth......................
191.
The
Lack of Access to Culturally and
Linguistically
Appropriate Social Services
and
Information Regarding Important Issues.........................
194.
The
lack of information about important issues and
available
services........................................................
196.
Stereotyping,
Discrimination and
Denigration
of the Portuguese................................................
197.
The
Cultural Duality of Portuguese-Canadian Youth............
203.
The
Community's Political Marginalization..................................................
206.
Lack
of Political Representation............................................
207.
Lack
of a strong national voice and
representative
organizations......................................
208.
Lack
of Political Participation.................................................
209.
The
Disunity and Division of the Luso-Canadian Community
210.
The
Community's Cultural Marginalization...................................................
212.
Portuguese‑Canadian
Youth are
Rapidly
Losing their Parents' Language and Culture.........
214.
The
Isolation of the Portuguese-Canadian Communities....
214.
The
Roles of the Luso-Canadian Community, Parents and Youth..............
215.
The
Role of Community Attitudes and Practices..............................
216.
The
Prioritizing of Work Over Schooling and/or Retraining. 216.
The
Immediate Need to Work,
in
Order to Obtain Rapid Economic Security........................
217.
Lack
of Interest in Education and/or E.S.L./E.F.L................
218.
Fear
of returning to school amongst many
community
members...................................................
218.
Parents'
reliance on their children as interpreters...
219.
The
Inability of the Community to See the Linkage
Between
Education and Economic Prosperity.....................
219.
The
community's Lack of Interest in Politics........................
220.
The
Lack of Involvement of Luso-Canadian
Youth
in the Political Process.....................................
221.
Lack
of Knowledge of,
or
Familiarity With, the Political Process...............................
222.
The
Perceived "Closed-Minded" Mentality of
the
Community..........................................................................
224.
The
Community's Negative Stigma of Itself.........................
224.
The
Lack of Willingness of the Community
to
Take Responsibility for Its Own Problems........................
225.
The
Community's History of
Reacting
to Problems, Rather Than Being Proactive..........
226.
The
Failure of the Portuguese-Canadian Media
to
Truly Inform and Educate Community Members...............
226.
The
Lack of Community Structures....................................................
227.
The
Lack of Luso-Canadian Role Models.............................
227.
There
are Few Mechanisms in the Community
to
Provide Academic Support to
Portuguese-Canadian
Students and Parents ......................
227.
There
are Few Community Incentives, to Encourage
Luso‑canadian
Students to Continue their Education..........
228.
The
Role of Community Organizations..............................................
228.
Portuguese
Associations and Organizations
are
not "Open" to Youth and not Receptive
to
Youth Initiatives.....................................................................
229.
Luso-Canadian
Associations Have Few Activities
Which
are Geared Towards Adolescents and
Young
Adults.............................................................................
230.
Luso-Canadian
Associations do not Conduct
Outreach
to Youth.....................................................................
230.
Portuguese-Language
Television and Newspapers
in
Canada do not Serve Youth................................................
230.
Portuguese-Language
Community Schools can be
Structures
in a Manner Which Better Serves Youth..............
230.
The
Role of Parental Attitudes and Practices...................................
231.
Many
Portuguese-Canadian Parents Place Earning
a
Living, and/or the Purchase of a Home Ahead
of
their Children's Education.................................................
232.
Portuguese-Canadian
Parents’ Low Level of Formal
Education
and Working-Class Status do not Allow them
the
Skills to Better Assist their Children With
School-Related
Matters...........................................................
235.
Some
Portuguese Parents do not devote Enough
Time
and Attention to the Affairs of their Children................
237.
Some
Luso-Canadian Parents Preserve Outdated Traditional
Values
and Cultural Norms.....................................................
238.
Some
Luso-Canadian Parents Place Harsher-Than-
Average
Restrictions on the Freedom of their Children
to
Associate With their Peers, Date, Work and Study
in
the Fields of their Choice....................................................
240.
Some
Luso-Canadian Parents do not Care if their Children
Learn
the Portuguese Language and Culture.......................
243.
The
Role of Youth.................................................................................
246.
Many
Luso-Canadian Young People Have Little Interest in the
Portuguese
Language and Culture........................................
247.
Luso-Canadian
Youth Feel a Sense of “Shame,”
or
“Inferiority” About their Portuguese Heritage....................
247.
Discipline
Problems Amongst
Some
Luso-Canadian Young People....................................
247.
The
Role of Peer and Societal Pressure.......................................................
248.
Dropping
Out is a Reaction to the Academic and Peer Pressures
of
School...................................................................................
248.
Capitalist
Market Forces Induce Young People
to
Prematurely Become Consumers and Workers..............
249.
Disparaging
Treatment of the Portuguese
Language
and Culture by Canadian Society‑at‑Large........
250.
The
Role of School Policies and Practices...................................................
251.
The
Lack of Responsiveness of the School System............
251.
Portuguese‑Canadian
parents perceive a lack of discipline
and
moral education in local schools.........................
252.
Schools
are not working with Portuguese‑Canadian parents
to
keep these informed and to reflect their wishes
regarding
their children’s education...........................
252.
Schools
are ignoring the wishes of Portuguese‑Canadian
Parents,
regarding the manner in which they would like
their
children to be taught and disciplined.................
253.
Schools
are not Inclusive of the Diversity of Canada’s
Ethnic
Cultures.........................................................................
253.
Many
Schools are not Prepared to Serve Working‑Class
Students
and Parents..............................................................
254.
The
School System Makes it Extremely Difficult for
Students
in Basic and General Levels of Study to
Move
to a Higher Level............................................................
254.
There
is Labelling and Condescending Treatment
of
General and Basic Level Students....................................
255.
The
Teaching of E.S.L. is Conducted Through
Inappropriate
Teaching Styles............................................... 256.
There
is a Lack of Accessible Child‑Care,
for
Those Luso‑Canadians Who Would Like to Learn English
256.
Some
Schools Discourage the Maintenance of
the
Portuguese Language, Culture and Identity....................
256.
The
Role of Government Policies...................................................................
257.
Current
child‑Protection Laws and Practices
Prevent
Luso‑Canadian Parents from Effectively
Disciplining
Children................................................................
257.
Portuguese
Youth are Excluded as Target Groups
for
“Affirmative‑Action” and “Anti‑Racist” Initiatives.............. 260.
The
Lack of Adequate Government Support for the
Teaching
and Promotion of the
Portuguese
Language and Culture........................................
261.
The
Inadequacy of Portuguese‑Government
Support
for the Teaching and Promotion of
the
Portuguese Language and Culture..................................
263.
The
Lack of Portuguese‑Language Television
(ex.:
CFMT, RTP on cable), in the Remote communities....
264.
Some
E.S.L. programmes are not Open to Canadian Citizens
264.
Summary...........................................................................................................
265.
10.
DISCUSSION
Introduction........................................................................................................
267.
The
Multifaceted Marginalization of Luso‑Canadians..................................
269.
The
Security and Sacrifices of Home Ownership.........................................
271.
The
Practices and Attitudes of First‑Generation Parents............................
276.
The
Perpetuation of Marginalization, Through the Intergenerational
Transmission
of Family Projects, Occupational and Gender Roles.....
278.
The
Reciprocal Relationship Between the Marginalization of the
Luso‑Canadian
Community and their Academic Underachievement..
284.
The
Effects of Marginalization on the
Educational
Choices of Luso‑Canadian Families.................................
286.
Education
as a Means to End Marginalization.............................................
292.
The
Limitations of John Ogbu's Cultural-Ecological Theory of
School
Performance in Light of the Case of Luso-Canadians.............
294.
The
Voluntary/Involuntary Dichotomy
and
the Case of the Portuguese-Canadians.................................
295.
Community
Forces...............................................................................
297.
Folk
Theories of "Making It"............................................................
301.
Marginalization.....................................................................................
303.
Summary...............................................................................................
308.
The
Approach of Paulo Freire........................................................................
309.
Marginalizing
Factors......................................................................................
314.
A
Freireian Approach......................................................................................
322.
Implications.......................................................................................................
323.
11.
CONCLUSION......................................................................................................
325.
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................
330.
APPENDIX 1.
Assumptions Regarding Portuguese‑Canadian Youth in
The
Historical, Sociological and Non‑Scholarly Sources......................
348.
APPENDIX 2. Questionnaire................................................................................
352.
APPENDIX 3. Focus
Group Kit
(Letter
of Introduction/Consent, Focus Group Questions,
Recruitment
Instructions, Recruitment Table, List of Tasks,
Budget)......................................................................................................
367.
APPENDIX 4. Newsletters
#1 to #3.....................................................................
376.
LIST OF TABLE
TABLE
1..........................................................................................................................
34.
TABLE
2..........................................................................................................................
35.
TABLE
3..........................................................................................................................
38.
TABLE
4..........................................................................................................................
41.
TABLE
5..........................................................................................................................
41.
TABLE
6.......................................................................................................................
139.
TABLE
7.......................................................................................................................
149.
TABLE
8.......................................................................................................................
150.
TABLE
9.......................................................................................................................
156.
LIST
OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1......................................................................................................................
151.
FIGURE
2......................................................................................................................
152.
FIGURE
3......................................................................................................................
154.
FIGURE
4......................................................................................................................
154.
FIGURE
5......................................................................................................................
157.
FIGURE
6......................................................................................................................
157.
FIGURE
7......................................................................................................................
158.
FIGURE
8......................................................................................................................
159.
FIGURE
9......................................................................................................................
159.
FIGURE
10...................................................................................................................
159.
FIGURE
11...................................................................................................................
160.
FIGURE
12...................................................................................................................
160.
FIGURE
13...................................................................................................................
164.
FIGURE
14...................................................................................................................
165.
FIGURE
15...................................................................................................................
165.
FIGURE
16...................................................................................................................
166.
FIGURE
17...................................................................................................................
166.
FIGURE
18...................................................................................................................
168.
FIGURE
19 ..................................................................................................................
175.
FIGURE
20...................................................................................................................
186.
FIGURE
21...................................................................................................................
206.
FIGURE
22...................................................................................................................
213.