By Mark Edward Pfeifer Abstract/Acknowledgements/Table of Contents - [ Chapters - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 ] - Appendices - References Cited DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIOECONOMIC DISTRIBUTION OF VIETNAMESE IN CANADA, ONTARIO, AND MAJOR CANADIAN CMAS In this chapter, the demographic and socioeconomic distribution of the Vietnamese populations across nine metropolitan areas (Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Kitchener, Hamilton, and London) is compared to that enumerated in Toronto, the province of Ontario, and the nation as a whole. The data utilized in this chapter was obtained as a specially tabulated target group profile from Statistics Canada of those persons claiming a Vietnamese ethnic origin as a single response on the 1991 census form. It should be noted from the outset that there are some possible problems which may be associated with this data. The census tabulations supposedly represent a 20% sample of the entire Vietnamese population. However, as noted in Chapter Two, it is likely that census takers missed a sizable proportion of the actual Vietnamese population for various reasons including the language barrier, a lack of familiarity among many Vietnamese concerning the census, and a desire among some Vietnamese to not reveal personal and family information on the census form. One would expect fairly recently arrived Vietnamese to be particularly underrepresented in the census enumeration. In some of the cities discussed in the chapter (especially Kitchener, London, and Hamilton), Vietnamese who had come to Canada just a few years prior to 1991 constituted quite substantial proportions of the population. Making generalizations about the Vietnamese populations in Kitchener, London, and Hamilton may also be especially problematic due to the small sizes of the Vietnamese sample tallied in these three cities. Due to the limitations associated with the data, care is taken throughout the chapter to stress the demographic and socioeconomic patterns observed may only be said to represent those of the enumerated sample of the population within each geographic area. DEMOGRAPHY Gender Distribution The 1991 census figures indicate a strong gender imbalance favouring males within the Toronto Vietnamese population. Among the enumerated Vietnamese in Canada as a whole, Ontario, and nine other CMAs with significant numbers of Vietnamese, males were also in the majority (Table 1). The male proportion of the population ranged from about 52% in Montreal to over 55% in Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Calgary. The male majority among the Vietnamese population in Toronto and across Canada reflects the fact that young men were disproportionately represented in the refugee flow which escaped from Vietnam in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s (Rutledge, 1992; Haines, 1996). Age Distribution In all of the CMAs (Tables 2 and 3), both Vietnamese males and females were overrepresented in the 0-14 and 25-44 age categories. In every CMA but one, the proportion of the male and female population within the 25-44 bracket was greater than 40% of the total enumerated Vietnamese population. The percentage of both genders in this category was higher in Toronto compared to any of the other metropolitan areas. Vietnamese men and women were underrepresented in the 45-64 and 65 and over age groups in Canada as a whole, Ontario, and across the nine other metropolitan areas. Notable, though, were the greater proportions enumerated within these latter two age categories among both genders in the Montreal CMA. TABLE 1 GENDER DISTRIBUTION VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991
Sources: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALES VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATIOIN CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Males, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 3 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALES VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Females, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Fertility Comparing the enumerated Vietnamese populations in Canada, Ontario, and the nine CMAs, the most notable pattern was one of overrepresentation in the four or more children category (Table 4). Indeed, Toronto was the only CMA in which women with four or more children constituted less than 20% of the total for ever-married females 15 years and over. In Canada as a whole, almost 25% of Vietnamese women in this group had four or more children in 1991. A somewhat larger percentage of Vietnamese women in Toronto had no children compared to the population in many of the other metropolitan areas, as well as Ontario, and Canada as a whole. In terms of birth rates, for Vietnamese women 15 years and over, the Toronto CMA average of 2363 children per 1000 women was lower that observed in most of the other cities (Table 5). The Canadian average was 2670 children born per 1000 Vietnamese women in this category. For ever-married Vietnamese women 15-44 years old, the Toronto average was 1686 children born per 1000 women. Among the other CMAs, only Montreal possessed a lower average. As for single Vietnamese women 15 years and over, the Toronto birth rate was 194 children born per 1000 women. Interestingly, this figure was much higher than that found among Vietnamese women in Montreal and Ottawa where the birth rate for single women was just 95 and 110 respectively. The Toronto birth rate was also higher than the figure for the entire population of Vietnamese single women enumerated across Canada. However, birth rates among single Vietnamese females 15 years and over were higher in London, Vancouver, Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Edmonton in comparison to the Toronto cohort. TABLE 4 NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN TO EVER-MARRIED WOMEN VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Number of Children Born to Ever-Married Women, 15 Years and Over, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 5 BIRTH RATE VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Children Ever-Born Per 1000 Women
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Immigrant and Citizenship Status Among the Vietnamese populations in Canada as a whole, Ontario, and the 9 other CMAs, very similar proportions exhibited immigrant, non-immigrant, and non-permanent resident status in comparison to the Toronto population (Table 6). Interesting trends may be noted, however in terms of citizenship status. The proportion of the enumerated Vietnamese with Canadian citizenship in 1991 was notably lower in the Toronto metropolitan area compared to the populations tabulated in Ottawa and especially Montreal. The Toronto citizenship figure of just over 60% was greater than that exhibited among the Vietnamese population in several CMAs including Winnipeg, Kitchener, London, and Hamilton. In the three latter cities, only slightly more than half of the enumerated Vietnamese population possessed Canadian citizenship in 1991, reflecting the less established character of the population in these urban centres. Period of Arrival Comparing the enumerated Vietnamese population in Toronto to that in Canada as a whole as well as Ontario and the nine metropolitan areas, some notable patterns were evident (Table 7). Of particular interest were the rather distinctive characteristics of the Montreal population in terms of time of arrival. Though their proportions were very small, noticeably larger numbers of Montreal Vietnamese arrived in the city prior to 1961 and between 1961 and 1970. More than 40% of the Vietnamese tabulated in Montreal came to Canada in the 1971-1980 period. Only about 55% of Montreal’s Vietnamese arrived between 1981 and 1991. This proportion was far lower than that exhibited by the Vietnamese population in any other CMA, Ontario, or Canada as a whole. The census TABLE 6 CITIZENSHIP AND IMMIGRATION STATUS VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 7 PERIOD OF ARRIVAL VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 By Period of Arrival, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data
figures also show that Montreal apparently had the largest Vietnamese population of any Canadian city up until sometime in the early 1980s. After 1981, migration of Vietnamese newcomers to Toronto far surpassed Montreal’s intake. The patterns in the census data reflect the fact that up until the 1980s, Montreal possessed the largest and best established Vietnamese community of any city in Canada. In the 1950s and particularly in the 1960s and early 1970s, sizable numbers of Vietnamese came from both North and South Vietnam to study French in Quebec universities. In part as a result of the ongoing war in their home country, many of these visa students stayed in Canada after graduating, often finding work in the professions in which they were trained. Given the fact that Montreal was the only city in Canada with a Vietnamese aggregation of any significance in the mid-1970s, it is not surprising that the initial waves of Vietnamese refugees who arrived in Canada after the fall of Saigon favoured Montreal as a site of resettlement (Dorais et al., 1987; Lavoie, 1989). After the early 1980s, Toronto, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, and several cities in Southern Ontario attracted a greater share of Vietnamese newcomers. The internal political situation in Quebec (including a referendum in 1980) and widespread perceptions that greater socioeconomic opportunities existed outside the province were key factors in the decreasing share of Vietnamese coming to Montreal after this time period (Lam, 1996). Another pattern which may be observed in the census figures is the notable recency of arrival of the enumerated Vietnamese populations residing in the Winnipeg CMA, as well as three Southern Ontario cities. 80% or more of the Vietnamese populations tabulated in Winnipeg, Kitchener, Hamilton, and London came to Canada after 1981. In the Kitchener and Hamilton metropolitan areas, the proportion of the population which arrived in Canada after 1988 exceeded 40%. The census figures for Kitchener and Hamilton are supported by the comments of research informants involved in the refugee resettlement of Vietnamese refugees in these two cities. According to these informants, a disproportionate number of refugees arriving in the late 1980s and early 1990s were resettled in Kitchener and Hamilton through the efforts of voluntary groups including mainstream and Vietnamese ethnic churches. Many of these latter arrivals were North Vietnamese who had spent years in refugee camps located in Southeast Asia before being resettled in Canada. Knowledge of Official Languages Comparing the enumerated Vietnamese population across Canada, Ontario and the ten metropolitan areas, the expected linguistic differences were apparent among the Vietnamese aggregate in Montreal (Table 8). In the Montreal CMA, just over 30% of the counted Vietnamese possessed knowledge of French only and just under 50% claimed to have knowledge of both official languages. Just over 10% of the Vietnamese tabulated in Montreal knew neither French nor English, representing the lowest proportion of all of the CMAs on this variable with the exception of Ottawa. The Montreal figure may reflect the fact that the Vietnamese population in this city has on average resided in Canada a bit longer than its counterparts in other metropolitan areas. In addition, the enumerated populations in Montreal and Ottawa are somewhat more educated and better represented in the professions. The Vietnamese residing in Vancouver, Winnipeg, Hamilton, and London display somewhat larger proportions with knowledge of neither French nor English in comparison to the populations enumerated in Toronto and Canada as a whole. Conversely, the figures for these CMAs may in part reflect the notable recency of arrival of the Vietnamese aggregates in these metropolitan areas. Not surprisingly, scholars in both the United States and Canada have found English language ability among Vietnamese to be related to length of residence. TABLE 8 KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGES VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Knowledge of Languages, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
In terms of knowledge of the Chinese language, the Vietnamese populations in four cities stand out. In Toronto, Edmonton, Calgary, and Vancouver 10% or more of persons claiming a Vietnamese ethnic origin possessed knowledge of Chinese. As few ethnic Vietnamese are fluent in Chinese, it is likely that disproportionate shares of the Vietnam-born population in these metropolitan areas are of ethnic Chinese ancestry. The numbers associated with this particular variable suggest that a small but not insignificant number of Chinese-Vietnamese residing in these cities claimed a Vietnamese ethnic origin when responding to the census. Highest Level of Schooling Comparing the Toronto Vietnamese population to those in Canada as a whole, Ontario and the nine CMAs also reveals some notable patterns in terms of education attainment (Table 9). In terms of the percentage of the 15 and over population in the two categories of less than grade 9 and grades 9-13 with or without a secondary certificate achieved, the Toronto level of about 70% paralleled the majority of the CMAs. The Toronto enumerated population as well as that residing in the other of the CMAs was much better represented in these categories associated with a lesser level of formal education achievement compared to the Montreal and Ottawa aggregates. Conversely, slightly more than half of the populations in these latter two urban centres had attended university with or without or earning a degree or certificate.
TABLE 9 HIGHEST LEVEL OF SCHOOLING ACHIEVED VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Population 15 Years and Over, Highest Level of Schooling Achieved, %1
1 Rows do not add up to 100%Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data. The proportion of Vietnamese possessing some experience with a university-level education in Montreal and Ottawa contrasted sharply to the figures observed in the other CMAs, in none of which the percentages of Vietnamese enumerated in the higher education categories exceeded 1/3 of the population. Mobility Among Vietnamese populations across Canada (Table 10), the Toronto proportion of movers in the past five years did not differ markedly from that observed in the other CMAs. About 80% of the enumerated population in Toronto and most of the other cities had moved over the half-decade prior to 1991. The one exception to the rule was the Vietnamese population in Montreal in which only about 67% of the total populace were movers. Again, this is evidence of the more established character of the majority of Montreal’s Vietnamese. In terms of intraprovincial migration, the Toronto average of about 15% was a bit higher than the norm for Canada as a whole and most of the other CMAs. Only the Vietnamese populations in Ottawa and London exhibited higher proportions of intraprovincial migrants compared to Toronto. In regard to interprovincial migration, the Toronto Vietnmese aggregate’s proportion of 8% was also a bit larger compared to the average for Vietnamese across Canada and the majority of the CMAs. The most intriguing patterns observed were the disproportionate share of interprovincial migrants found among the Vancouver and London populations. Also striking was the lack of attraction Winnipeg, Edmonton, and Montreal possessed for Vietnamese looking to move outside of their provinces. In addition, interesting patterns were evident in terms of the proportion of external migrants. Again, it is the Montreal Vietnamese aggregate which stands out. TABLE 10 MOBILITY STATUS VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Mobility Status, Population 5 Years and Over By Place of Residence 5 Years Prior, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Only about 15% of the total Vietnamese population in Montreal had migrated to the city from outside Canada in the five years prior to 1991. This number was nearly ten percentage points lower than that registered in any of the other CMAs. These numbers provide further evidence of the earlier date of arrival at which many of the Montreal Vietnamese came to Canada. At the other extremes, London, Hamilton, and Kitchener exhibited external migrant proportions greater than 35%. The figures for these three CMAs are probably indicative of the relative recency of the arrival of many of the Vietnamese residing in these urban areas, a pattern also noted above. Religion Among the Vietnamese population in Canada as a whole, Ontario, and the nine other metropolitan areas, there were a few notable variations in terms of religious affiliation (Table 11). In every city, Buddhists were the majority. However, the Buddhist plurality ranged from about 28% in Hamilton to over 50% of the population in Winnipeg and Montreal. Catholics made up about 20% of the enumerated populace in all but two of the CMAs. Perhaps the most striking differences among the metropolitan areas may be observed in the Protestant category. In most of the CMAs, the Protestant proportion of the population was 4 to 6%. However, in Montreal the figure was less than 1%. Vietnamese Protestants were very much overrepresented in Kitchener and Hamilton. It is worth noting that in these two cities, Vietnamese evangelical churches have been particularly active. In Hamilton, a Vietnamese evangelical congregation helped sponsored a number of refugees from the Hong Kong camps in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
TABLE 11 RELIGIOUS FAITH VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Religious Affiliation, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991
SOCIOECONOMIC VARIABLES Occupational Distribution by Gender Assessing the census data, it is apparent that the Vietnamese male labour force in the Toronto CMA was somewhat underrepresented in managerial/professional occupations in comparison to the average for the Vietnamese population in Canada as a whole (Table 12). Notably, a much higher proportion of Vietnamese men in Montreal and Ottawa worked in these types of jobs compared to all of the other CMAs. The percentage of enumerated Vietnamese men working in clerical jobs was low in all of the metropolitan areas including Toronto but the proportion in Ottawa stands out as being significantly higher than in any other city. The proportion of the Toronto Vietnamese male labour force working in manufacturing was a bit higher than the national average for Vietnamese men. Vietnamese males in Ottawa and Montreal were very much underrepresented in manufacturing compared to their counterparts in other cities. Among the other CMAs, only Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Kitchener showed higher proportions in manufacturing compared to Toronto. Like their male counterparts, Vietnamese women in Ottawa and Montreal displayed greater proportions in managerial/professional jobs compared to women in other cities (Table 13). The percentage of the Toronto female labour force in managerial and professional jobs was very close to the proportion for the Vietnamese female workforce in Canada as a whole. In 1991, Vietnamese females in the Toronto CMA were notably overrepresented in clerical work compared to Vietnamese women in the other cities. There was a wide variation among the CMAs in terms of the proportion of women working in service-related jobs. The percentage of Toronto Vietnamese women employed in services – about 10% - was much lower than the Canadian Vietnamese female average of 19%. Close to 40% of the Vietnamese female labour force in Edmonton and Calgary worked in services. 30% of Vietnamese females were employed in manufacturing in the Toronto CMA. This number was very close to the national average for Vietnamese women. A much higher proportion of Vietnamese women worked in manufacturing in Winnipeg, Hamilton, and especially Kitchener. Vietnamese women in Edmonton were notably underrepresented in manufacturing.
TABLE 12 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION MALE LABOUR FORCE, 15 YEARS AND OVER VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Occupational Distribution, by %
Full Labels of column headings: Man./Prof. = Managerial/Professional; Manufact. = Manufacturing; Con-Tran = Construction/Transportation; Other Crafts = Other Crafts/Equipment Operating Occupations; Non-Classif. = Occupations Not Classified Jobs classified as Managerial/Professional include managerial, admininistrative and related occupations, occupations in natural sciences, engineering, and math, occupations in social sciences and related fields, occupations in Religion, teaching and related occupations, occupations in medicine and health, and artistic, literary, recreational, and related occupations. Jobs classified as Primary include farming, horticultural, and animal husbandry occupations, forestry and logging occupations, and mining and quarrying including oil and gas field occupations. Jobs Classified as Manufacturing include processing occupations, machining and related occupations, and product fabricating, assembling, and repairing occupations. Jobs Classified as Construction/Transportation include construction trades occupations, and transport equipment operating occupations. Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 13 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION FEMALE LABOUR FORCE, 15 YEARS AND OVER VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Occupational Distribution, by %
Full Labels of column headings: Man./Prof. = Managerial/Professional; Manufact. = Manufacturing; Con-Tran = Construction/Transportation; Other Crafts = Other Crafts/Equipment Operating Occupations; Non-Classif. = Occupations Not Classified Jobs classified as Managerial/Professional include managerial, admininistrative and related occupations, occupations in natural sciences, engineering, and math, occupations in social sciences and related fields, occupations in Religion, teaching and related occupations, occupations in medicine and health, and artistic, literary, recreational, and related occupations. Jobs classified as Primary include farming, horticultural, and animal husbandry occupations, forestry and logging occupations, and mining and quarrying including oil and gas field occupations. Jobs Classified as Manufacturing include processing occupations, machining and related occupations, and product fabricating, assembling, and repairing occupations. Jobs Classified as Construction/Transportation include construction trades occupations, and transport equipment operating occupations. Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Industry Divisions Census data also make possible a comparison of the proportion of the Vietnamese ethnic origin labour force represented within several industrial categories. The enumerated Vietnamese population in the Toronto CMA displayed a remarkable concentration within manufacturing in 1991. About 44% of the total enumerated Vietnamese labour force were employed in manufacturing (Table 14). Comparing the enumerated Vietnamese labour force in Toronto to that in Canada, Ontario, and the nine CMAs, it is apparent that the Toronto population was overrepresented in manufacturing positions compared to the Vietnamese in all but three other metropolitan areas – Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Kitchener. The Toronto average of 44% in manufacturing was notably higher than the 35% figure for the entire Vietnamese labour force within Canada. The enumerated Vietnamese labour forces in Vancouver, Edmonton, and especially Ottawa, were underrepresented in manufacturing compared to the average for the entire Canadian Vietnamese population. The Vietnamese displayed tiny proportions in finance, insurance, and real estate jobs in all of the metropolitan areas. In terms of employment in business services, the Toronto figure paralleled the national average of about 5%. Among the CMAs, only Montreal and Ottawa display larger proportions in business services compared to Toronto. In the industrial classification of government services, the very small Toronto proportion paralleled that of all other CMAs with the notable exception of Ottawa. Nearly 11% of the Vietnamese labour force in the nation’s capital was employed in government-related occupations in 1991. No other CMA showed more than 4% in this category. Consistently small proportions of Vietnamese worked in education services in all of the metropolitan areas. In the health and social services category, Montreal stood out among the CMAs with more than 10% of its Vietnamese labour force employed within this job classification. Among accommodation, food and beverage occupations, the Toronto proportion of 6% was only about half of the average for the entire Vietnamese labour force across the nation. Vietnamese populations in Calgary, Vancouver, Ottawa, and Edmonton possessed proportions greater than the national average in this category. Income Comparing persons of Vietnamese ethnic origin in the Toronto CMA to the Vietnamese population across Canada, Ontario, and the nine CMAs, some interesting patterns may be identified. The average employment income of Vietnamese men who worked full-time in Toronto was slightly above the average figure for Canada as a whole (Table 15). There was quite a bit of variation among the CMAs on this variable. Vietnamese men in Ottawa and Montreal exceeded $30,000 in average income. TABLE 14 LABOUR FORCE AND EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, MALES AND FEMALES TOTAL LABOUR FORCE, VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Labour Force 15 Years and Over by Industry, %1
1 Percentages for employment in "Primary Industries" and "Service Industries" are excluded due to very low percentages.Full Labels of column headings: Manufact. = Manufacturing; Con-Util = Construction, Transportation, Communication, and other Utilities, Fin.= Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate; Bus. = Business Services; Govt. = Government Services; Edu. = Education Services; Health = Health and Social Services; Accom. = Accomodation, Food and Beverage Services Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Vietnamese men who were employed full-time didn’t make much more than $20,000 on average in Edmonton or Winnipeg. The average employment income of Vietnamese men who worked part-time in the Toronto CMA was very close to the national average of about $13,400. Vietnamese men who were employed part-time earned the highest incomes in Montreal, and the lowest in Calgary, Winnipeg, and London. The average employment income of enumerated Vietnamese females who worked full-time was $22,181 in Toronto. This figure was a bit higher than the Canadian average for Vietnamese women. As with the men, the highest average incomes of Vietnamese women who were employed full-time were registered in the Montreal and Ottawa areas. The lowest average employment incomes were found in Edmonton, Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Vancouver. In these four CMAs, Vietnamese women working full-time made about $4000-7000 less than their counterparts in other cities. Among women working part-time, Vietnamese women enumerated in the Toronto CMA displayed an average employment income of nearly $12,000. This figure was a bit higher than that compiled for Vietnamese women across Canada. Of the other CMAs, only women in Ottawa made more on average. In several cities, Vietnamese women working part-time made less than $10,000 annually on average. The metropolitan areas where Vietnamese women possessed the lowest part-time average incomes were Winnipeg, Hamilton, and Edmonton. Looking at the average income figures for Vietnamese men 15 years and over, the Toronto figure of $20,855 was a little bit above the average for Vietnamese men across Canada (Table 16). Similar to the patterns observed above, Vietnamese men in Ottawa and Montreal earned the highest average incomes. In the majority of cities, the average income of Vietnamese men fell below $20,000. The lowest average incomes were found in the Edmonton, London, and Winnipeg metropolitan areas. Different patterns were apparent in terms of median income. The median income of enumerated Vietnamese males in the Toronto CMA was notably higher than the figure for Vietnamese men across Canada. In no other CMA did the median income for Vietnamese men exceed $20,000. In the majority of the other metropolitan areas, the median figure ranged from $14,000-17,000. Among Vietnamese women 15 years and older, following the trend observed among the men, average incomes were highest among Vietnamese women in Ottawa and Montreal. Average incomes were the lowest among women residing in Hamilton, Edmonton, and Winnipeg. As with the men, the highest median income was observed among Vietnamese women in the Toronto CMA. The median Toronto figure of $13,518 was itself quite low but it was nearly $2,000 higher than that enumerated among Vietnamese women across all of Canada. The CMAs in which Vietnamese women had the lowest median incomes again included Calgary, London, Edmonton and Winnipeg. Composition of Total Income Assessing the composition of total income among both men and women, Vietnamese in Toronto received a slightly higher proportion of their total income from employment compared to the 84% average for Vietnamese across Canada (Table 17). In Vancouver, Hamilton, and London the percentage fell below 80%. The enumerated Vietnamese in the Toronto area received about 12% of their total income from government transfer payments. In a number of metropolitan areas, transfer payments constituted greater than 15% of income among the Vietnamese population. TABLE 15 INCOME, MALES AND FEMALES, 15 YEARS AND OVER VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Average Employment Income, $
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data
TABLE 16 AVERAGE AND MEDIAN INCOME VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Males and Females 15 Years and Over, $
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data
TABLE 17 COMPOSITION OF TOTAL INCOME, MALES AND FEMALES VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Composition of Total Income, %
Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data
Unemployment Rate Comparing Vietnamese in the Toronto CMA to those across Canada among males 15 years and over, the 18.5% unemployment rate of Vietnamese men observed in Toronto was a bit higher than the national average (Table 18). However, Vancouver, Winnipeg, London, Kitchener, and Hamilton exhibited unemployment rates above 20%. At the other extreme, about 10% of Vietnamese men were unemployed in Calgary and Ottawa. The 17% unemployment rate of Vietnamese men 25 and over in Toronto was a percentage point higher than the national average. Of the other metropolitan areas, unemployment rates exceeded 20% in Vancouver, Kitchener, Hamilton, and London. Unemployment rates were again the lowest in Calgary and Ottawa. The unemployment rate of Vietnamese women 15 years and over in Toronto was about a percentage point higher than the Canadian average. Other CMAs in which the unemployment rate exceeded 20% were London, Kitchener, Vancouver and Hamilton. Vietnamese women 15 and over exhibited the lowest rates of unemployment in the Ottawa and Edmonton CMAs. Among women 25 years and over, only those in Vancouver and Hamilton displayed higher unemployment rates than that observed among the Toronto population of this cohort. The lowest unemployment rates were again tabulated among women in Ottawa and Edmonton. Rates of Self-Employment Assessing differences among the Vietnamese populations in the various CMAs in terms of self-employment rates, in general the census data indicate that self-employment rates were very low among persons of Vietnamese origin in major cities across Canada. TABLE 18 UNEMPLOYMENT RATE VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Unemployment Rate, %
Sources: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data; Profile of Visible Minorities: Ontario, Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Housing, Family and Social Statistics Division, 1995.
TABLE 19 CLASS OF WORKERS, MALES 15 YEARS AND OVER VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991 Class of Workers by Category, %1
1 Self-Employed includes enumerated respondents who claimed they were self-employed in both incorporated and unincorporated establishments, % do not add up to 100% in all rows.Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
TABLE 20 CLASS OF WORKER, FEMALES, 15 YEARS AND OVER VIETNAMESE ETHNIC ORIGIN POPULATION CANADA, ONTARIO, MAJOR CMAS, 1991
Class of Workers by Category, %1
1 Self-Employed includes enumerated respondents who claimed they were self-employed in both incorporated and unincorporated establishments, % do not add to 100% in all rows.Source: Statistics Canada, Customized Tabulation of 1991 data.
Both men and women were more likely to own their own businesses in Vancouver and Montreal compared to the other cities (Tables 19 and 20). In only these cities did the rate of self-employment among men and women approach or exceed 10%. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION This analysis of the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the Vietnamese populations residing in major urban centres has shown the considerable diversity existing among the Vietnamese diaspora residing across Canada. The most notable findings relate to the observed differences between the Montreal and Ottawa populations compared to those Vietnamese residing in other cities. A much higher proportion of the Vietnamese enumerated in Montreal and Ottawa arrived in Canada before 1980. In Montreal in particular, the gender imbalance favouring males was not as severe and nor was the age distribution so strongly dominated by the younger adult cohorts. Reflecting a more established character, the Montreal and Ottawa populations displayed a higher % of Canadian citizenship, less recent mobility, greater facility in the official languages of English and French and much more representation in the university-level categories of educational achievement. The populations in the two cities also exhibited a far more balanced distribution in the spectrum of occupations include managerial/professional, health and social services, and government positions compared to the striking concentration in manufacturing found among Vietnamese men and women in most of the other cities. In addition, Vietnamese in Montreal and Ottawa earned higher incomes and depended less on income from transfer payments compared to the populations enumerated in other Canadian cities. To some extent it would appear that Vietnamese in Montreal and Ottawa have had greater success in achieving incorporation in the better compensated "primary" sector as opposed to the "secondary" component of the mainstream labour market. This situation probably reflects in part the longer duration many Vietnamese in these cities have resided in Canada compared to their compatriots in Toronto and other cities with populations composed of even greater proportions of individuals who arrived after the mid-1980s including Vancouver, Winnipeg Hamilton, London, and Kitchener. However, it should be pointed out that the life history and human capital resources of many of the Vietnamese residing in Ottawa and Montreal differs considerably from the bulk of the populations residing in the other urban centres. Many Vietnamese came to Quebec in the 1960s and 1970s not as refugees but as Visa students and stayed after finding jobs in the professions including the government bureaucracy, health care, and education (Dorais et. al. 1987). The census figures also indicate that Montreal and Ottawa also possessed larger percentages of Vietnamese who came to Canada as refugees in the 1970s as opposed to the 1980s. American scholars have noted that refugees who came to the U.S. in the first wave of migration after 1975 generally possessed more personal resources in terms of past education, facility with English, and past occupational skills. Many of these individuals were former members of the South Vietnamese elite and had held positions in the government, military, or professions (Hein, 1993; Rutledge, 1992). The rather unique demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the Montreal and Ottawa aggregates also likely reflect a process of self-selection. Several informants noted that many Vietnamese initially resettled in Montreal eventually moved to other Canadian cities due to fears for their own future and that of their children given the political instability and social climate associated with ethnic nationalism in the province. The Vietnamese who have opted to stay in Montreal may be disproportionately those who have become well-established in the city. In Ottawa, a somewhat similar process may have taken place. In marked comparison to cities such as Toronto, Hamilton, London, Kitchener, and Vancouver, the structure of the city’s economy is dominated by occupational sectors in which fairly recent Vietnamese immigrants and refugees are not terribly likely to find employment including managerial/professional and government positions. Consequently, those Vietnamese who do reside in the Ottawa CMA are more likely to have lived in Canada for a greater period of time while also possessing the human capital resources necessary for employment in the local economy.
APPENDIX II KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW SUBJECTS Mutual Assistance Associations Vietnamese Association of Toronto. Nguyen Dinh Phuong. Counselor. April 30, 1997. John Chu. Former Executive Director. June 25, 1997. Vietnamese Community of North York. Tran Hoan Truong. President. April 25, 1997. Vietnamese Community Centre of Mississauga. Than Nguyen. Counselor. May 20, 1997. Vietnamese Physicians’ Association of Toronto. Dr. Khoi Ba Nguyen. President. July 3, 1997. Society of Vietnamese-Canadian Professionals. Dr. Michael Dang. Vice-President. July 23, 1997. Vietnamese/Cambodian/Lao/Chinese/Service Organization of Ontario. Phuoc Tran. Vice-President. June 8, 1997. Southeast Asian Services Centre. Tom Pham. Counselor. May 16, 1997. Metro Toronto Chinese and Southeast Asian Legal Aid Clinic. Bao Nguyen. Counselor. Jenny Quan. Counselor. May 20, 1997. Vietnamese Society of Motion Picture Pioneers. Irene Trinh. President. August 10, 1998. Social Service Agencies Toronto Board of Education. Tong Vuong. School Community Advisor. May 6, 1997. Timothy Nguy. Social Worker. June 20, 1997. Pha Nguyen. Social Worker. June 23, 1997. Metro Social Services, East Office. Duc Nguyen. Social Worker. June 17, 1997. Parkdale Intercultural Association. Phu Nguyen. Former Executive Director. May 9, 1997. Dixie-Bloor Neighbourhood Centre. Thuy Tran. Settlement Counselor. May 31, 1997. Brampton Neighbourhood Centre. My Lan Tran. Settlement Counselor. July 2, 1997. Syme-Woolner Neighbourhood and Family Centre. Lien Le. Coordinator, School Age Programs. June 25, 1997. Northwood Neighbourhood Services. Van Nguyen. Settlement Counselor. July 7, 1997. Jane-Finch Community and Family Centre. Quynh Le. Counselor. July 8, 1997. Ontario Welcome House. Peter Tran. Settlement Counselor (Retired). June 18, 1997. COSTI Refugee Reception Centre. Anne Marie Nguyen. Settlement Counselor. June 16, 1997. NOAH Refugee Reception Centre. Cam Chau Tran. Settlement Counselor. July 21, 1997. Access Alliance Multicultural Community Health Centre. Dr. Duyet Nguyen. June 10, 1997. Immigrant Womens’ Health Centre. Karen Chau. Counselor. June 10, 1997. Hong Fook Mental Health Centre. Dung Nguyen. Counselor. June 11, 1997.
Social Service Agencies Continued Parkdale Community Health Centre. Theresa Vu. Counselor. July 2, 1997. Regent Park Community Health Centre. Dan Ha. Counselor. July 11, 1997. Asian Community AIDS Services. Peter Ho. Counselor. July 15, 1997. Temples and Churches Vietnamese Zen Meditation Group. Several Members. May 10, 1997. Xa Loi Buddhist Temple. Ben Nguyen. President. July 6, 1997. Linh Son Buddhist Temple. Rev. Thich Tri Dung. Resident Monk. July 11, 1997. A Di Da Buddhist Temple. Rev. Thich Chan Thuan. Visiting Monk and Coordinator, World Vietnamese Buddhist Order. July 17, 1997. Cao Dai Temple. Phan Van Phuoc. President. July 14, 1996. Vietnamese Catholic Community of Hamilton. St. Ann’s Church. Father Vincent Kim Van Toan. June 22, 1997. Vietnamese Catholic Community of Toronto. Mission of the Vietnamese Martyrs Congregation. St. Cecelia Church. Father Joseph Lam. July 18, 1997. Vietnamese Olive Baptist Church of Toronto. Rev. Timothy Phan. June 6, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Toronto. Rev. Toan Nguyen. May 23, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Southeast Toronto. Rev. Anh Nguyen. May 25, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Scarborough. Rev. Minh Ho. May 21, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Downsview. Rev. Tan Nguyen. June 10, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Mississauga. Hien Than, Deacon. May 18, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Brampton. Rev. Binh Nguyen. July 10, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Hamilton. Rev. Tan Ngo. July 24, 1997. Vietnamese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Kitchener-Waterloo. Rev. An Duong. July 16, 1997. Grace Chinese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of Toronto. Rev. Paul Kiet Ma. July 8, 1997. Chinese Christian Missionary Alliance Church of East Toronto. Rev. Andrew Ku. July 18, 1997. Ethnic Media Outlets Thoi Su Newspaper. Sam Nguyen. Staffer. June 24, 1997. Thoi Bao Newspaper. Dat Nguyen. Publisher. June 26, 1997. Saigon Nho Newspaper. Cong Nguyen. Staffer. July 4, 1997.
Ethnic Media Outlets Continued Saigon Canada Newspaper. John Thai. Staffer. July 5, 1997. Tu Do Newspaper. Nghia Nguyen. Publisher. July 27, 1997. Vietnamese Language Radio Program. AM 1540. Viet Tien. Producer. June 30, 1997. Saigon TV Weekly Television Program. Kim Tran. Producer. July 9, 1997.
Abstract/Acknowledgements/Table of Contents - [ Chapters - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 ] - Appendices - References Cited
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