Report of the Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees
1988

Background - Executive Summary - Chapter 1 - Chapter 2-6 - Chapter 7-9 - Chapter 10-11 - Chapter 12 Conclusion & Appendices

Chapter 12: Victims of Catastrophic Stress

People who have experienced catastrophic stress whether natural disasters like earthquakes or floods or man-made assaults such as harassment, threats, warfare, rape or torture - bear wounds which require special compassion and understanding. The American Psychiatric Association official nomenclature, DSM-III, makes explicit note of symptoms of disorder following a psychologically traumatic event that is outside the range of usual human experience in its description of the "post-traumatic stress disorder. " The essential features of this disorder include a re-experiencing of the event through painful, intrusive recollection, recurrent dreams or nightmares, feelings of being detached or estranged from others, loss of the ability to become interested in things which a person had previously enjoyed and problems dealing with intimacy. Some survivors also display hyper-alertness, difficulty failing asleep and suspiciousness in their dealings with others. In some instances, the symptoms may emerge a short time after the trauma; but delays of months or even years are not uncommon.

Even if they have not experienced the catastrophe directly, families and children of someone who has been persecuted or tortured develop wounds of their own. Studies of children in families subjected to political persecution in Latin America and in Northern Ireland, and children whose parents survived Nazi concentration camps, suggest some common behavioural outcomes. Arrest of normal psychological development, during which fear replaces the feeling of being protected, is a common, basic response. As a result, the children develop symptoms such as social withdrawal, chronic fears, depression, clinging and overly dependent behaviour, sleep disturbance, physical complaints, school problems and difficulties in getting along with peers.

Adult survivors of catastrophe are a group at high risk for developing emotional disorder. Table 12.1, documenting the use of community mental health groups by different ethnic groups in Vancouver, illustrates this. In 1987, Anglo-Canadians made up about 68 per cent of the population of the community served, while 81 per cent of the mental health services' clients were Anglo-Canadians.

Anglo-Canadians were, therefore, slightly overrepresented in the caseloads. As is common for many ethnic groups, South Asians and Chinese were under-represented. However, Latin Americans and Vietnamese - ethnic groups which have been exposed to such catastrophic stresses as war, internment and torture - reversed this trend, with utilization rates far in excess of their proportions in the general population.

Recovery usually depends on the ability to reexperience the event in a protected atmosphere, to fully understand its meaning and to share it with other people. Unfortunately, fear and shame often make people reluctant to tell their stories. When they do, they are sometimes discredited. Many observers have commented on the seeming impassivity with which people recount horrifying experiences of persecution, harassment, and torture. The listener who does not realize that "psychic numbing" is, in fact, part of the disorder and may be the only way people can live with the memory of unimaginable horror, may misinterpret stolidity as evidence that the unimaginable never happened.

Percentage in Percentage in Utilization Relative Utilization

Catchment Caseload Rate by Minority Groups

Latin America 0.27 0.93 344.4% 289.4%

Vietnamese 0.39 0.58 148.7% 125.0%

South Asian 3.66 2.03 54.5% 45.8%

Chinese 13.08 7.57 57.9% 48.6%

Anglo-Canadian 1 68.00 81.00 119.0% 100.00%)

* Adapted from R. Peters, "The Interagency Mental Health Council's Committee on Multiculturalism and Mental Health: Progress Update, " Greater Vancouver Mental Health Service Society, February 1988.

Calling a reaction post-traumatic stress disorder, and pointing out that it can occur in previously healthy people exposed to many different types of catastrophe, must not blind us to the fact that each individual reacts to stress in a unique way. That uniqueness is in part shaped by culture. For example, some authorities have reported that a Latino man, who had been tortured and broken under the strain, suffers the humiliation of having betrayed his cultural ideal of manliness in addition to suffering the effects of the torture itself. On the other hand, so many Cambodian women suffered rape and torture that the stigma may be less than it is for other groups; there is a tendency to interpret the experience as fate.

In 1973, the medical committee of Amnesty International recommended studies to validate the impression that the use of torture by repressive regimes was widespread, and to determine the effects of torture. The first centre for the treatment of victims of torture was established in Copenhagen in 1982. But the Canadian Medical Group of Amnesty International had begun investigating torture and its sequelae earlier. The work, which began in Toronto in 1978, culminated in the establishment of the Canadian Centre for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Torture in 1984. To date, the Centre has worked with over 800 victims of torture, 200 during 1987 alone. A second centre, the Vancouver Association for Survivors of Torture, began in 1985.

Both Canadian groups agree that the goal of torture is to destroy personality, not to extract confessions. Their conclusions echo the eloquent comments of Elaine Scarry:

The common psychological sequelae of torture are evidence of the effectiveness of the torturers' methods.

The Toronto Centre for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Torture reports that suspiciousness is a common characteristic of all survivors of torture. Suspiciousness combined with hyper-alertness to stimuli causes them to misinterpret stimuli, sometimes with severe consequences. For example, the director of the Centre reports that it is not uncommon for a survivor of torture to be awakened by the sound of a car idling, misinterpret this as evidence that he or she is under surveillance, and develop a panic attack. People who have been persecuted arc particularly vulnerable to racism because of fear that, to people in a vulnerable situation, the unmentionable could happen again. Victims of persecution and torture arc hypersensitive to rejection and prone to over-react to situations they commonly encounter, such as bureaucratic delay.

Providing help for survivors of torture is complicated by the fact that many are reluctant to come forward. Many are understandably suspicious of helping agencies like mental health clinics; their experiences with helping professionals like physicians may have included examinations which resulted in an opinion that they could withstand more torture. Survivors also suffer a burden of shame and a fear of hurting their families through their revelations. Shattering as the statistics gathered by the Toronto centre are, they likely are substantial underestimates of the extent of the problem.

The reluctance to seek help is unfortunate because accumulating evidence suggests that the therapy is very effective. Many torture victims can be helped by psychotherapy. The act of testimony, of sharing painful and humiliating experiences with another person, has significant therapeutic value for victims of torture and political repression. Through testimony, bewilderment may change to anger against the torturers and the regime which countenanced the acts. Some torture victims have found relief by transforming their private suffering into public testimony, thereby helping others and becoming part of a constructive social force to combat the use of torture. Public testimony, besides contributing to the common good, has been found to have a therapeutic effect on the individual, helping him or her to channel hostility in a positive way. Performing an act of social reparation brings psychological relief.

This form of testimony, which imparts a value to the person's suffering, transforms a passive experience into an active response.

Survivors of persecution and torture often experience particular difficulty in vocational and social rehabilitation. Traumatic dreams and hyperalertness often result in sleeping difficulties which in turn makes it difficult for them to get to work on time or to concentrate on tasks. In response to their special needs, CEIC has funded a project for the vocational rehabilitation for survivors of torture.

The Task Force lauds the efforts of the Toronto and Vancouver centres to focus attention on a largely hidden problem which creates pain and suffering for many, and the attempts by CEIC to provide flexible programs to meet some of their needs.

The Task Force recommends that Health and Welfare support research and health promotion initiatives to delineate the psychological consequences of torture and to develop effective treatment modalities for survivors of torture and their families.

The Task Force heard many dramatic stories about the experiences of immigrants and refugees in Canada. The following account illustrates only too well the health issues affecting many of our newcomers.

When Quyen heard the news about her brother, she allowed herself to think there might, still be reason to hope. In 1981, Quyen and her husband, Bang, sharing the load of their infant daughter between them, followed the lead of Quyen's older brother and fled Vietnam. They never caught up with him. However, someone in the refugee camp in Thailand told Quyen her brother had been there before them; he had been selected as a refugee and had left for Canada. By the time Quyen and her husband arrived at the camp, Canada had stopped taking refugees in large numbers and they were forced to wait.

The filth of refugee camp life, and the overflow from the latrines which ran over the paths between the overcrowded concrete warehouses where they lived, depressed their spirits. Bang felt he had to constantly stay at his wife's side. Other slender, pretty women like her had been raped behind the garbage cans where they scrounged for extra food, or in one of the camp's dark alleyways. The birth of a second child - even though it was a boy made them feel even worse. Then the miracle happened. The Canadian embassy located Quyen's brother living in a small community in British Columbia; he reported that in a year or so he would be financially able to sponsor them to come to Canada.

In fact, it took longer than a year for him to accumulate enough money to convince the government that he could be financially responsible. By December 1985, the family was on its way to Canada and a new life. They were overjoyed to learn that Quyen's brother had found a job for Bang in a mining town in the northern part of the province, about 160 km from where he was living. They stayed in Vancouver long enough for Bang to complete a language training course for persons bound for the labour force and then left for northern B.C. As soon as they arrived in their new home, Quyen's brother called to say he was driving over to greet them, to see the niece he had known only as a baby and the nephew who was still a stranger.

The newspapers that evening reported that a two-car collision on the Trans-Canada Highway had resulted in the death of a 40-year-old Vietnamese man.

Bang's face never lost the serious, troubled look acquired in the refugee camp. He worked hard in the mine and soon found a job washing dishes as well. He was ambitious and, even though working six days a week, 12 hours a day kept him away from his family, he hoped this would only be temporary. In the long run, he hoped it would provide the financial advantage they needed. Because he was away so much and exhausted when he did come home, Bang did not notice that his wife tended to blame herself more and more for her brother's death. Nor did he realize that she was becoming despondent and apathetic.

Quyen could not stop thinking that, if not for her, her brother would still be alive. She also was unhappy about being the only Vietnamese adult in the small town. Bang now spoke some English and the children were picking it up quickly. Quyen would have liked to learn the language too, but did not qualify for any of the training programs offered in the area. Even if she had, there would have been no one with whom to leave the children - certainly not the neighbours who seemed so unfriendly.

Her neighbours not only were unfriendly; they were disapproving. They had noticed that Quyen sometimes left her nine-year-old daughter alone with the five-year-old brother while she went to the store. They also noted that, even when Quyen was home, the children seemed remarkably free to roam the neighbourhood and cross streets without adult

Quyen did not feel well. One day, she went to see a general practitioner whom Bang had heard about at work. Using her daughter as the interpreter, Quyen explained to the doctor that she was having spots in front of her eyes, that she felt tired all the time but couldn't sleep at night. The physician told them Quyen's X-rays and lab tests were normal and there was nothing to worry about.

One of Quyen's neighbours eventually called the local social services agency, suggesting that they investigate the family for possible child neglect. After speaking to a number of the neighbours, the young social service worker was also concerned. He went to interview Quyen's daughter's teacher. At first, the teacher reported that there did not stem to be anything wrong; the girl was very quiet, and her teacher thought she might be naturally shy or deferential, as so many Orientals were apt to be. As she talked with the social worker, though, the teacher did begin to wonder whether the behaviour which she had attributed to culture might be something else. Instead of deference, it might be apathy. And the apathy might, as the worker suggestion, be due to emotional or even to physical neglect.

When the worker visited their home, Quyen could tell that he disapproved. She knew the house was not as clean as it might be but, even if she had been able to speak to the young man, she would not have told him that she often could not bring herself to cook and clean these days. She tried not to cry when any of her family were at home because she didn't want to be a burden; but she kept thinking about her brother and how lonely she was. She often could not stop the tears.

The evidence against Quyen and Bang was soon so convincing that there seemed little choice but to take the children into protective custody. When he realized how poor the timing was, the social worker was chagrined. Had he known, he would have tried to delay the apprehension so that it did not take place on the Vietnamese New Year, an event for which Bang had specially taken time off from work.

With the children gone, Quyen's condition deteriorated. When Bang told the general practitioner who had examined her earlier that his wife was now talking about killing herself, the doctor arranged to have her transferred to the psychiatric hospital at the University of British Columbia.

Bang is perplexed and, when pressed, will admit he is angry too. He was told that, unlike Vietnam, Canada has many agencies that help people. He has now had experiences with social services, the schools, family doctors and psychiatrists. He feels that, as a result of their "help," he has lost his wife and children.

Quyen and Bang's story has been altered to protect their identities, but it is not exaggerated. Each of the Task Force members knows of families like them, and the written and oral testimonies contain descriptions of more.

As a caring society, Canada has responsibilities for newcomers like Quyen and Bang. These responsibilities include preventing emotional disorder, promoting well-being and ensuring that people who need treatment have access to it.

Migration creates a risk for one's mental health. However, instead of becoming mental health casualties, most immigrants and refugees succeed in becoming productive and valued members of Canadian society.

The Task Force attempted to identify the forces which increase the risk and create distress for new settlers, robbing Canada of their potential contributions. Negative public attitudes, separation from family and community, inability to speak English or French, and failure to find employment arc among the most powerful causes of emotional distress. Persons whose pre-migration experience has been traumatic, women from traditional cultures, adolescents and the elderly also arc at high risk for experiencing difficulties during resettlement. Quyen's and Bang's tragedy illustrates the sad cost of misunderstanding, loneliness, and lack of opportunity on the mental health of people who arc otherwise able and eager to become contributing members of Canadian society.

Attending to these risk factors can help transform migration from a situation of risk into one of opportunity. Changing attitudes so that Canadians come to value our commitment to cultural pluralism more than we currently do will benefit everyone. Strengthening communities is, from a mental health perspective, an effective preventive measure. We must make every effort to ensure that people arc equipped with tools such as language which they need to participate fully in Canadian life.

No matter how effective the programs for preventing mental disorder and promoting positive health prove to be, mental illness will not be eradicated. There will always be a need for care, through formal mental health services and through agencies which, although organized for other purposes, make important contributions to the treatment and rehabilitation of the mentally ill.

Unfortunately, many immigrants and refugees encounter formidable obstacles in their search for care. Quyen's and Bang's story contains no villains: they were victims of misunderstanding, not malfeasance. The misunderstandings sprang in part from language but, even more importantly, from misperception based on cultural and historical difference. Had Quyen's neighbours and the social worker understood that in Vietnam, it is perfectly appropriate to leave a young child in the care of an older sibling, and that crossing a street alone hardly seems dangerous to a girl who has grown up in a Thai refugee camp, they might have been less hasty in judging these actions as evidence of child neglect. Had Quyen's physician been able to communicate with her through someone other than a nine-year-old child, and had he understood that people from her culture are unlikely to spontaneously report feelings of emotional upset, he might have arrived at his diagnosis of depression earlier. Appropriate treatment, offered in a culturally sensitive manner, might have helped change this unfortunate story at several critical stages.

Removing barriers to access and making services more effective will call for a creative response by all levels of government, the mental health professions, and training centres. To meet the need for service, it will not be necessary to create something new for each language and cultural group in Canada. With. the encouragement and leadership of the federal government, each province can provide crossculturally effective mental health services using existing resources and a minimum of new dollars.

Three important principles, derived from the Task Force's findings and deliberations, underlie its recommendations:

? The mental health issues affecting immigrants and refugees include both issues of cause and issues of cure. To meet the mental health needs of Canada's migrants, risk-inducing factors must be mitigated and remedial services made universally accessible.

? The steps required to prevent and treat emotional distress in immigrants involve the persons with whom migrants come into contact as much as they do the migrants themselves. Sensitizing Canadian-born persons - emigration- officers, settlement workers, teachers, neighbours and mental health personnel - to the ways in which culture can affect encounters between themselves and newcomers to this country can help eliminate major sources of distress for migrants and facilitate effective mental health care.

? The Task Force recommendations reflect the fact that no single governmental body or level of government is or can be responsible for the mental health of Canada's immigrants and refugees. For newcomers to adapt to and integrate with Canadian society, their strengths, needs and perspectives must be taken into account by decisionmaking bodies at each level of government, by planners and by service providers.

On the basis of these principles, and in consideration of the relative urgency, practicality, and feasibility of each proposed action, the Task Force recommends that.

1. CEIC develop a multilingual series of premigration orientation programs in collaboration with immigrant service agencies and ethnocultural organizations for dissemination in refugee camps and at Canadian embassies abroad (Chapter 2, p.22).

2. CEIC expedite changes in admission criteria to accommodate a broader definition of family, and changes in admission procedure to accelerate the process of family reunification (Chapter 2, p.21).

3. CEIC, Health and Welfare and Secretary of State provide core funding to immigrant

service agencies to guarantee their maintenance on a long-term basis (Chapter 2, p.21).

4. Health and Welfare and Secretary of State encourage and support the development of

seniors' groups and programs in immigrant service agencies, general community service agencies, and ethno-cultural organizations (Chapter 11, p. 81).

5. Health and Welfare, Secretary of State, and Status of Women Canada develop and provide multilingual educational materials on women's rights and roles in Canada for discussion at immigrant service agencies, general community service agencies and ethno-cultural organizations (Chapter 10, p.76).

6. Health and Welfare and Secretary of State work with their provincial counterparts to ensure that the curricula and environments of schools, preschools and daycare facilities reflect the cultural diversity of the children attending them (Chapter 9, p.70).

7. Secretary of State, in cooperation with provincial ministries of education, encourage and support boards of education to adopt multicultural race relations policies similar to those that have already proven successful in Canada (Chapter 1, p.14).

8. CEIC, Ministry of Communications, and Secretary of State increase public education regarding the benefits of cultural pluralism, the contributions of immigrants to Canadian society, the difficulties faced by newcomers, and the effects of prejudice on both victim and perpetrator (Chapter 1, p.14).

9. CEIC enable all immigrants and refugees to have equal access to official language education whether or not they are destined for the labour market. Basic training allowances must be available regardless of the immigration class of training applicants (Chapter 3, p.28).

10. CEIC, in coordination with Secretary of State, expand and ensure the flexibility of official language training programs with respect to the level of mastery assumed, objectives of course content, duration of program, scheduling of instructional hours, and location of classes (Chapter 3, p.28).

CEIC, Ministry of Labour and Secretary of State enter into negotiations with their provincial counterparts to provide criteria and guidelines for entry into professions and trades by persons trained outside of Canada (Chapter 4, p.34).

12. Health and Welfare establish a national advisory body to coordinate and monitor

social, health and mental health services to ethnic minorities, with participation from

professional associations, service administration, and immigrant service agencies

(Chapter 6, p.52).

13. Health and Welfare invite requests for proposals on the development of cross-cultural training modules in education, family practice, nursing, psychiatry, psychology and social work (Chapter 7, p.57).

14. Health and Welfare, Secretary of State and their provincial counterparts encourage

institutions of higher learning to identify cross cultural education as a priority, particularly for students of education, medicine, nursing, psychiatry, psychology and social work (Chapter 7, p.57).

15. Health and Welfare and Secretary of State encourage all funders of social and health

services to require that organizations applying for funds provide evidence of efforts to make their services to ethnic minorities accessible and to provide evaluations of their effectiveness (Chapter 6, p.52).

16. Health and Welfare identify immigrants and refugees as well as multicultural concerns

among its priority areas for Health Promotion contributions, research and National Welfare grants, and other funded activities (Chapter 6, p.52).

17. Health and Welfare, in collaboration with immigrant service agencies and ethno-cultural

organizations, develop multilingual educational materials on the psychological consequences of migration and the resources for mental health care. Health and Welfare should provide these materials to provincial ministries of health and immigrant service agencies for dissemination through front-line service providers and ethnic media (Chapter 5, p.45).

18. Health and Welfare and its provincial counter parts encourage all social, health and mental health service agencies to increase their hiring of ethnic minority staff through the adoption of equal employment opportunity policies (Chapter 8, p.62).

19. Health and Welfare and Secretary of State encourage the admissions committees of social, health and mental health service training programs to recognize as assets, fluency in a non-official language and intention to work with clients who speak that language (Chapter 8, p.62).

20. Health and Welfare encourage provincial mental health services to employ mental health practitioners at major immigrant service agencies (Chapter 5, p.46).

21. Health and Welfare, in collaboration with provincial ministries of health and immigrant service agencies, develop a curriculum for training interpreters used by mental health services. Immigrant service agencies and provincial ministries of health should be provided with this curriculum for use in classes supported by Health and Welfare (Chapter 5, p.46).

22. Health and Welfare support research and health promotion initiatives to delineate the psychological consequences of torture and to develop effective treatment modalities for survivors of torture and their families (Chapter 12, p.86).

23. Health and Welfare encourage provincial mental health services to give special consideration to the funding of ethno-specific rehabilitation and reintegration facilities (Chapter 5, p.46).

In recommending that the above actions be taken, the Task Force emphasizes that the cost-effectiveness; of any given action depends heavily on the knowledge and experience on which it is based.

The need for accurate, empirical research is consistently noted throughout this report. Policy changes regarding, for example, family reunification criteria or professional accreditation guidelines require detailed research before decisions can be made. Effective education programs, whether directed towards the Canadian-born public or to immigrants from various cultural backgrounds, must be based on sound information regarding existing attitudes, beliefs and needs.

Above all, the development of both preventive and remedial services such as seniors' support groups or mental health rehabilitation services must reflect a comprehensive understanding of the needs, strengths and cultural perspectives of the individuals involved.

Implementation of the recommended policies, programs and services also depends on controlled

pilot testing and evaluation. If an institution of higher education prioritizes cross-cultural content

for students of the helping professions, the means chosen should be measured for their effectiveness. A curriculum designed to train paraprofessional interpreters for work with mental health practitioners should be implemented on an experimental basis and its effectiveness assessed. Remedial services for victims of catastrophic stress and their families must be tested and evaluated before being implemented on a large scale.

To maximize the benefits of the research and evaluations, their findings should be made available .to individuals, community organizations and government bodies that can use them. At present, results of research concerning immigrants tend to be published either in professional medical journals to which few immigrant service providers subscribe, or in culturally oriented works to which only" converted " mental health practitioners refer. Evaluations of policies and programs affecting immigrants tend to remain internal documents for the eyes of program planners and funders alone. Both these situations need to change before the evaluations and research conducted can be considered truly cost-effective.

Given the need for empirical research, controlled experimentation, and the coordinated dissemination of findings, the Task Force calls for a four-step strategy, summarized in four additional recommendations, to ensure the successful implementation of its recommendations.

24. CEIC, Health and Welfare and Secretary of State establish across Canada at least three

centres of excellence for research on issues affecting immigrant mental health. These

centres would be dedicated to designing and carrying out empirical studies on topics such as the effects of negative attitudes on mental health; the mental health of migrant children, women, the elderly and victims of catastrophic stress; and how culture affects the assessment, treatment and rehabilitation of the mentally ill.

In addition, these centres would be involved in the evaluation of new models of care. Each centre should receive assured funding for at least five interdisciplinary core staff, four postdoctoral fellowships, and two predoctoral scholarships. Immigrants and refugees and members of newer ethnic groups in Canada should be recruited for a significant number of the staff and training positions.

Funding should be provided for pilot research projects. For large-scale inquiries, the centres should apply for funding through regular channels.

25. CEIC, Health and Welfare and Secretary of State establish across Canada at least three centres of excellence for cross-cultural training. In addition to training students and practitioners in the social and health service professions, these centres would provide training for persons who must in turn educate others who come into contact with immigrants: employment counsellors, second language instructors, and lawyers. The centres would also conduct periodic surveys to determine how cultural awareness is being introduced in mental health training programs in Canada and how this determines qualifications for licensure and practice.

Funding should enable these centres to offer training fellowships to individuals from a wide range of disciplines and occupations and from immigrant, refugee and newer ethnic groups in Canada. Seed funding should also be provided to enable these centres to develop pilot projects to test innovative models of service delivery and new research and demonstration projects. For more definitive studies, the centres should apply through the regular funding channels.

26. CEIC, Health and Welfare and Secretary of State establish a single, computerized information centre to collect, coordinate and disseminate the results of research and evaluations as well as descriptions of service and training programs directed to migrants and ethnic minorities in Canada. Information would be gathered from, and made available to government departments, professional associations, general community and immigrant service agencies, academic institutions and ethnic organizations. Ideally, funding should provide not only for the specific sources of information to be made known but also for authorized abstracts of the research findings and evaluations to be disseminated.

27. Health and Welfare and Secretary of State create a national body to advise on and monitor the implementation of the Task Force recommendations.

Government, service providers, planners and research workers are constantly being encouraged to make preventive programs and treatment services more culturally sensitive and appropriate. Although information exists on which programs could be built, large gaps in knowledge and experience remain. Until these gaps are bridged, all the goodwill in the world will not be sufficient to address the concerns presented to the Task Force. As the Director of Out-patient Services, Camp HUI Hospital, Halifax expressed it:

I am left with the feeling, which I can It substantiate, that the problem is greater in this area than we imagine. At this point, however, I find it difficult to envisage any way to adapt present services to better deal with the problem. (Submission: Teehan)

Coordination of effort - in which findings emanating from the research centres can be translated into program models, which can be tested in the service and training centres, and the results disseminated through the information centre - would help in overcoming gaps in knowledge and facilitate the transmission of new knowledge to service and training programs.

Implementation of the Task Force's recommendations will serve our long-term national goal to promote the health of all. Equally important, the recommendations and the concerns out of which they arise arc a challenge to our national will. In just under 50 years, Canada has evolved from a nation whose indifference to the suffering of others remains as a permanent blot on our history (Malarek, 1988; Abella and Troper, 1982) to one universally admired for its humanitarianism. Although we now open our doors more easily than in the past, we do not yet accord newcomers an adequate welcome. The late anthropologist and philosopher Margaret Mead stated that one could judge the quality of a society by the way it treats its most vulnerable members.

Persons troubled by mental health problems, feeling they have nowhere to turn for help, arc vulnerable people. Our response to their need is a test of this nation's moral strength.

Clearly distinct from integration, a process of eliminating distinctive group characteristics which may be encouraged as a formal policy (e.g., American "melting pot").

A set of evaluations (positive or negative) about members of a social category. These evaluations serve as predispositions to act for or against members of these categories, and may erupt as behaviours.

One of three classes of admissible immigrants under the 1976 Immigration Act. Includes anyone who fits the United Nations definition: "any person who, by reason of a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion, (a) is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, by reason of such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country, or, (b) not having a country of nationality, is outside the country of his former habitual residence and is unable, or by reason of such fear, is unwilling to return to that country."

An act, for or against, a member of a social category. These acts of discrimination may or may not be a consequence of an attitude or prejudice. Acts always need to be judged against some external criterion (such as acts directed toward other social categories) in order to show discrimination.

A social group with a shared cultural heritage which maintains distinctive cultural (linguistic, religious, etc.) traditions while living within a larger (usually multicultural) society. A sense of collective identity and some co-residence and co-marriage usually characterizes an ethnic group. In principle, all residents of Canada arc members of one or more ethnic groups.

Pertaining to a single ethnic group.

One of three classes of admissible immigrants under the 1976 Immigration Act, formed of close relatives of a sponsor in Canada. Includes the sponsor's spouse, unmarried children under age 21, parents and grandparents.

Isolation of members of ethnic groups within their ethno-specific community.

The intellectual development of an ethnic group in Canada.

A language associated with an ethnic group in Canada, other than the country's official languages.

A process, clearly distinct from assimilation, by which groups and/or individuals become able to participate fully in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the country.

A person who seeks lawful permission to come to Canada to establish permanent residence.

The social, political, economic and educational institutions that are shared by the general population and provide the context within which ethnic, racial and minority groups live.

A term which defies Canada's image of a multicultural society where all cultures have equal status and none more power than others. Replaced in this report by "public," "general community" and "established."

The process that people who cannot speak the majority culture's language or find work, undergo as they are cut off from customary sources of social support and do not participate fully in society,

Both mental disorder and positive mental health.

Formal care offered by hospitals, clinics and private practitioners as well as informal services provided in physicians' offices, schools, second language classrooms, immigrant service agencies and other facilities.

At times, we use "migrant" or "immigrant" in this report to cover persons in all categories: family class, refugees, designated class and independent immigrants. The term does not, however, include foreign students or temporary workers, people who were not included in the Task Force's mandate.

Any group that lacks power in society due to ethnicity, race, size of population, wealth, sex, handicap, intellect and/or other factors. Ethnic and racial groups may or may not be minority groups, depending on their power in society.

Describes the institutions that serve the larger society. In some cases, ethno-specific institutions exist as alternatives to both multicultural institutions and those in the larger society.

The official ideology of cultural pluralism, where all cultures have equal status and merit in Canadian society, and none has more power than another. Multiculturalism policies promote integration, not assimilation, of minority groups into society

In Canada, English and French share official language status nationally. Only one language has official status in the provinces and territories, except for New Brunswick where both languages have official status.

Programs designed to increase the awareness of the general public and/or specific client groups concerning the facilities and services provided by an organization, or to increase their participation.

A mental state or attitude of pre-judging (generally unfavourably), attributing to that person characteristics which arc attributed to a group of which the person is a member. Types of prejudice include: Ethnocentrism toward members of ethnic or cultural groups, usually not one's own; Racism toward members of racial groups, usually not one's own. Sexism, Regionalism, Fanatacism, Ageism, Classism are similarly defined by gender, region, religion, age and social class groups.

A group with common biological heritage, usually one that makes them visibly distinctive from others in their milieu. If there is a shared sense of membership and identity, then racial groups are merely categories created by others on the basis of superficial physical characteristics.

SEE Prejudice.

SEE Convention Refugees

A person who appears on Canadian soil and claims refugee status under the Geneva Convention.

Programs designed to assist newly arriving immigrants to integrate into a society. Typically they would include language, orientation, housing and counselling services.

Beliefs held by individuals about the presumed physical and psychological characteristics of members of a social category. These beliefs can be either positive or negative. When applied so generally that individual differences are not recognized, or even defined, they arc considered impediments to quality human relations.

Resulting from a situation or experience which overwhelms the individual's typical ways of coping and which usually results in a reaction, either physical or psychological, or both.

Work that does not fully use a person's abilities, especially when the work is not in the trade or profession for which they were trained.

ACCESS Committee of Ottawa-Carleton Ottawa, Ontario

Alberta Association of Immigrant Serving Agencies (A.A.I.S.A.) Edmonton, Alberta

Alberta Immigration and Settlement Services, Department of Career Development and Employment Edmonton, Alberta

Alberta Mental Health Services - Edmonton Region, Department of Community and Occupational Health Edmonton, Alberta

Alberta/NWT Network of Immigrant Women Calgary Alberta

AMALC (Association Medicale pour l'Amerique Latine et les Cara´bes) Verdun, Quebec

Association of Neighbourhood Houses of Greater Vancouver Vancouver, B.C.

Canadian-African Newcomer Aid Centre of Toronto (C.A.N.A.C.T.) Toronto, Ontario

Association for New Canadians St. John's Newfoundland

British Columbia. Association of Society Calgary, Alberta

Calgary Catholic Immigration Society Calgary, Alberta

Calgary Immigrant Aid Society Calgary, Alberta

Capital Mental Health Association Victoria, B.C.

Catholic Immigration Bureau, Archdiocese of Toronto Toronto, Ontario

Catholic Immigration Centre Ottawa, Ontario

Catholic Social Services

Immigration and Settlement Service

Edmonton, Alberta

Centre for Research and Education in Human Services and Kitchener-Waterloo Refugee

Coordinating Committee Kitchener, Ontario

Centre Maghrebin de Recherche et d'Information (CMRI) Montreal, Quebec

Centre Portugais de Reference et Promotion Sociale Montreal, Quebec

Changing Together - A Centre for Immigrant Women Edmonton, Alberta

Clarke Institute of Psychiatry, Social And Community Psychiatry Toronto, Ontario

CLSC Cote-des-Neiges, Montreal, Quebec

Coalition for Immigrant Women in Nova Scotia (CIWINS) Halifax, Nova Scotia

Community Resources Consultants of Toronto Toronto, Ontario

COSTI-IIAS Immigrant Services, Family Counselling Centre Toronto, Ontario

Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Vancouver, B.C.

Edmonton Board of Health, Edmonton, Alberta

Edmonton Immigrant Services Association Edmonton, Alberta

Eritrean Community in Winnipeg, Inc. Winnipeg, Manitoba

ESL Reception and Assessment Centre Edmonton Public Schools Edmonton, Alberta

Family Service Association of Metropolitan Toronto Toronto, Ontario

Greater Vancouver Mental Health Service Society Vancouver, B.C

Guelph and District Multicultural Centre, Inc. Guelph, Ontario

Guzder, Jaswant, MontrÚal, QuÚbec

Hanifa, Subaida B. Waterloo, Ontario

Harambee Centres Canada, Toronto Chapter Toronto, Ontario

Herberg, Dorothy C. and Edward N. Herberg; Toronto, Ontario

Hispanic Council of Metropolitan Toronto Toronto, Ontario

Hong Fook Mental Health Association Toronto, Ontario

Hrycak, Nina, Calgary, Alberta

Immigrant Women's Association of Manitoba, Inc. Winnipeg, Manitoba

Immigrant Women's Group of P.E.I. Charlottetown, P.E.I.

Inland Refugee Society of British Columbia Vancouver, B.C.

Inter-Church Committee for Refugees/ Comite Inter-Eglises pour les Refugees Toronto, Ontario

Inter-Cultural Association of Greater Victoria Victoria, B.C.

Intercultural Task Force Halifax, Nova Scotia

Jamaican-Canadian Association Toronto, Ontario

Japanese Community Volunteers' Association Vancouver, B.C.

Kingston and District Immigrant Services Kingston, Ontario

Kristl, Jiri Port Coquitlam, B.C.

Kurol, Vilma Saint John, N.B.

Legal Assistance of Windsor Windsor, Ontario

Lo, Hung-Tat, Toronto, Ontario

London Cross Cultural Learner Centre Immigrant Seniors Project London, Ontario

Medicine Hat Society for Immigrant Settlement Medicine Hat, Alberta

Mensah, Lynette, Halifax, Nova Scotia

Metro Toronto Multicultural Mental Health Group, Toronto Department of Public Health Northern Health Area Toronto, Ontario

Metropolitan Immigrant Settlement Association Halifax, Nova Scotia

Montgomery, Randal Vancouver, B.C.

M.O.S.A.I.C. Vancouver, B.C.

Multicultural Health Coalition Downsview, Ontario

National Association of Canadians of Origins in India (NACOI), Montreal Chapter Montreal, Quebec

New Brunswick Multicultural Council Fredericton, New Brunswick

Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Social Services St. John's, Newfoundland

Nova Scotia Hospital, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia

O.A.S.I.S. (Orientation Adjustment Services for Immigrants Society) Vancouver, B.C.

Ontario Welcome House, Toronto, Ontario

Pacific Immigrant Resources Society, Preschool Multicultural Services and Vancouver Health Department Vancouver, B.C.

Parkdale Community Legal Services Inc. Toronto, Ontario

Portuguese Interagency Network (P.I.N.) Toronto, Ontario

Preschool Multicultural Services, Vancouver Health Department and Pacific Immigrant Resources Society Vancouver, B.C.

S.E.A.R.C.O.M. (South East Asian Refugee Community Organization of Manitoba, Inc.) Winnipeg, Manitoba

S.U.C.C.E.S.S. (The United Chinese Community Enrichment Services Society) Vancouver, B.C.

Saskatchewan Health Mental Health Services Branch Regina, Saskatchewan

Saskatoon Open Door Society Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

Sauve, Virginia, Edmonton, Alberta

South East Asian Service (S.E.A.S.) Centre Toronto, Ontario

St. Barnabas Refugee Society Edmonton, Alberta

Student Services and Counselling Mount Saint Vincent University Halifax, Nova Scotia

Surrey Delta Immigrant Services Society Surrey, B.C.

Surrey School District 36 Surrey, B.C.

Sztopa, Emil Vancouver, B.C.

Table de Concertation des Organismes de MontrÚal au Service des Refugies Montreal, Quebec

Teehan M.D. Halifax, Nova Scoria

Thompson, Pamela R, Ottawa, Ontario

Toronto Board of Education Toronto, Ontario

Toronto Department of Public Health Toronto, Ontario

Ujimoto, K. Victor, Guelph, Ontario

United Church of Canada, British Columbia Conference, Division of Global Concerns Vancouver, B.C.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Ottawa, Ontario

University of Toronto, Department of Psychiatry Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Toronto, Ontario

Vancouver Health Department, East Office Vancouver, B.C.

Vancouver Health Department Pacific Immigrant Resources Society and Preschool Multicultural Services Vancouver, B.C.

Vancouver Health Department, South Office Vancouver, B.C.

Woodgreen Red Door Family Shelter, Refugee Referral Office and Refugee Housing Unit Toronto, Ontario

Working Women Community Centre Toronto, Ontario

Vancouver Public Hearing April 10-11, 1987

Alberta Association of Immigrant Serving Agencies (A.A.I.S.A.) Edmonton, Alberta

Association of Neighbourhood Houses of Greater Vancouver Vancouver, B.C.

Calgary Catholic Immigration Society Calgary, Alberta

Department of Counselling Psychology University of British Columbia Vancouver, B.C.

E.S.L. Reception and Assessment Centre Edmonton Public Schools Edmonton, Alberta

Edmonton Board of Health Edmonton, Alberta

Eritrean Community in Winnipeg, Inc. Winnipeg, Manitoba

Intercultural Association of Greater Victoria Victoria, B.C.

Japanese Community Volunteers Association (Tonari Gumi) Vancouver, B.C.

M.O.S.A.I.C. (Multilingual Orientation Service Association for Immigrant Communities) Vancouver, B.C.

O.A.S.I.S. (Orientation Adjustment Services for Immigrants Society) Vancouver, B.C.

Pacific Immigrant Resources Society (P.I.R.S.) Vancouver Health Department South Office and Preschool Multicultural Services Vancouver, B.C.

Preschool Multicultural Services Pacific Immigrant Resources Society (P.I.R.S.) and Vancouver Health Department, South Office Vancouver, B.C.

S.E.A.R.C.O.M. (Southeast Asian Refugee Community Organization of Manitoba, Inc.) Winnipeg, Manitoba

S.U.C.C.E.S.S. (United Chinese Community Enrichment Services Society) Vancouver, B.C.

St. Barnabas Refugee Society Edmonton, Alberta

Salvadorean Canadian Cultural Centre Winnipeg, Manitoba

Sauve Virginia, Edmonton, Alberta

Vancouver Health Department, South Office Preschool Multicultural Services and Pacific Immigrant Resources Society (P.I.R.S.) Vancouver, B.C.

Vancouver Society on Immigrant Women Vancouver, B.C.

May 6-7,1987

COSTI - HAS Immigrant Services, Family Counselling Centre Toronto, Ontario

Canadian-African Newcomer Aid Centre of Toronto (C.A.N.A.C.T.) Toronto, Ontario

Catholic Immigration Bureau Toronto, Ontario

Centre for Research and Education in Human Services; and Kitchener-Waterloo Refugee Coordinating Committee Kitchener, Ontario

Herberg, Dorothy; and Edward Herberg Mississauga, Ontario

Hispanic Social Development Council of Metropolitan Toronto Toronto, Ontario

Hong Fook Mental Health Association Toronto, Ontario

Intercede, Toronto, Ontario

Interchurch Committee for Refugees Toronto, Ontario

London Cross Cultural Learner Centre Immigrant Senior Project London, Ontario

Metro Toronto Multicultural Mental Health Group, Toronto Department of Public Health Northern Health Area Toronto, Ontario

Multicultural Health Coalition Downsview, Ontario

New Experiences for Refugee Women Toronto, Ontario

Ontario Welcome House, Toronto, Ontario

Parkdale Community Legal Services Inc. Toronto, Ontario

Portuguese Interagency Network Toronto, Ontario

Social Planning Council of Metro Toronto Toronto, Ontario

Ujimoto, K Victor, Guelph, Ontario

Working Women Community Centre Toronto, Ontario

Woodgreen Red Door Family Shelter, Refugee Referral Office and Refugee Housing Unit Toronto, Ontario

May 8-9,1987

Association for New Canadians St. John's Newfoundland

Association medicale pour l'Amerique Latine et les Caraibes (AMALC) Verdun, Quebec

CLSC Cote-des-Neiges, Montreal, Quebec

Catholic Immigration Centre/ Centre Catholique pour Immigrants Ottawa, Ontario

Centre Maghrebin de Recherche et d'Information (CMRI) Montreal, Quebec

Centre portugais de reference et promotion sociale Montreal, Quebec

Guzder, Jaswant, Montreal, Quebec

Immigrant Women's Group of P.E.I. Charlottetown, P.E.I.

Intercultural Task Force, Halifax, Nova Scotia

Mensah, Lynette, Halifax, Nova Scotia

Metropolitan Immigrant Settlement Association* Halifax, Nova Scotia

National Association of Canadians of Origins in India/ Association nationale des canadiens/nes d'origine indienne, Montreal Chapter Montreal, Quebec

New Brunswick Multicultural Council/Conseil multiculturcl du Nouveau-Brunswick Fredericton, New Brunswick

Services des interpretes aupres des refugies indochinois (SIARI); and Table de concertation des organismes de Montreal au service des refugies/ees Montreal, Quebec

Table de concertation des organismes de Montreal au service des refugies; and Services des interprÞtes auprÞs des refugies indochinois (SIARI) Montreal, Quebec

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHR) , Branch Office in Canada Ottawa, Ontario

Adelman, Professor Howard

Toronto, Ontario

Alberta Department of Career Development and Employment

Alberta Department of Hospitals and Medical Care

Alberta Department of Community and Occupational Health

Allodi, Dr. Federico A.

Toronto, Ontario

AMSSA (Affiliation of Multicultural Societies & Service Agencies of B.C.) Vancouver, B.C.

Association Multi-Ethnique pour integration des

Personnes Handicapees du Quebec Montreal, Quebec

Atket, Mr. Ronald G., P.C., Q.C. Totonto, Ontario

British Columbia Forensic Psychiatric Services Ministry of Health Burnaby, B.C.

CLSC Cote-des-Neiges

Montreal, Quebec

Canadian Centre for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Torture Toronto, Ontario

Canadian Mental Health Association, B.C. Division Vancouver, B.C.

Children's Aid Society of Metro Toronto,

Toronto, Ontario

Dartmouth Immigrant Orientation Association Dartmouth, Nova Scotia

Disman, Dr. Milada

Toronto, Ontario

Immigrant Access Services

Winnipeg, Manitoba

Kumar-Misir, Dr. Victor

Scarborough, Ontario

Lomas, Mr. Peter

Vancouver, B.C.

Lovink, Mr. Tony

Ottawa, Ontario

Malarek, Mr. Victor

Toronto, Ontario

Mangalam, Professor J.J. Halifax, Nova Scotia

Manitoba Department of Community Services

Manitoba Department of Employment Services and Economic Security

Manitoba Department of Health

New Brunswick Department of Health and Community Services

New Brunswick Department of Income Assistance

Ontario Ministry of Health

Ontario Ministry of Citizenship and Culture

Ontario Ministry of Community and Social Services

Ontario Ministry of the Attorney General

P.E.I. Multicultural Council Charlottetown, P.E.I.

Psychologists Association of Alberta

Edmonton, Alberta

Quebec. Direction des Communautes Culturelles

et de l'Immigration

Quebec. Ministere de la Sante

et des Services Sociaux

S.I.A.R-I. (Services des InterprÞtes AuprÞs des Refugees Indochinois) Montreal, Quebec

Saskatchewan Department of Health

Social and Educational Studies Faculty of Education University of British Columbia

Vancouver, B.C.

Standing Conference of Canadian Organizations Concerned for Refugees

Survivors International Canada, Toronto, Ontario

Toronto Office Skills Training Project

Toronto, Ontario

Tuzi, Ms. Marisa Vancouver, B.C.

Vancouver Association for the Survivors of Torture Vancouver, B.C.

Vancouver Refugee Council Vancouver, B.C.

Appendix five

Abelia, Irving and Harold Troper. None is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933-1948. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, c1982, xiii, 336 p.

Agard, R. Access to the Social Assistance Delivery Systems by Various Ethnocultural Groups. n.p.: Social Assistance Review, 1987.

Balaran, Paul. Refugees and Migrants: Problems and Program Responses: A Look at the Causes and Consequences of Today's Major International Population Flows, and at the Ford Foundation's New Programs to Address the Problems of Refugees and Migrants in the United States and Elsewhere in the World. New York: Ford Foundations, 1983, 64 p.

Beiser, M., P.J. Johnson and R.C. Nann, cd. Refugee Resettlement Project. Vancouver: The Refugee Resettlement Project, University of British Columbia, 1984.

Beiser, M., R.J. Turner and S. Ganesan. Catastrophic Stress and Factors Affecting Its Consequences Among Southeast Asian Refugees.

Bernstein, B. "A Critique of the Concept Compensatory Education". In Functions of Language in the Classroom. Ed. by C.B. Cazden, V. John and D. Hymes. New York: Teachers College Press, 1972.

Berry, John W., et al. Multiculturalism and Ethnic Attitudes in Canada. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1977, 359 p.

Published also in French under the title: Attitudes a l'egard du multiculturalisme et des groupes ethniques au Canada.

Canada. The Constitution Act, 1982/La loi constitutionnelle de 1982. Ottawa: Queen's Printer/Imprimeur de la Reine, c1982, 23 p.

Canada. Immigration Act, 1976/Loi de 1976 sur l'immigration. Ottawa: Queen's Printer/Imprimeur de la reine, 198 5. 1 v.

Canada. Dept. of Justice. Toward Equality- The Response to the Report of the Parliamentary Committee on Equality Rights/Cap sur l'egalite: reponse au rapport du Comite parlementaire sur les droits a l'egalite. Ottawa: Communications and Public Affaire, Dept. of Justice/Communications et affaires publiques, Ministere de la justice, c1986, 69, 69 p.

Canada. Employment and Immigration Canada (Dept.). Battered Immigrants and Immigration Status. Ottawa: 1986.

Canada. Parliament. House of Commons. Special Committee on Participation of Visible Minorities in Canadian Society. Equality Now: Report of the Special Committee on Participation of Visible Minorities in Canadian Society. Ottawa: 1984, ix, 166 p.

Canada. Royal Commission on Equality in Employment. Report of the Commission on Equality in Employment. Rosalie Silberman Abella. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, 1984, viii, 393 P.

Council of Interracial Books for Children. "Childcare Shapes the Future: Racism: Related Problems, Research and Strategies." In Interracial Books for Children Bulletin. V.14, no. 7-8, 1983, p. 6-14.

Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees. Review of the Literature on Migrant Mental Health. Vancouver: 1986.

Canadian Human Rights Commission - Annual Report/Rapport annuel. Ottawa: 1986, 33, 33 p.

Disman, M. Aging and Ethnicity in Ontario. Toronto: n.p., 1986.

Doyle, Robert. Access to Health and Social Services for Members of Diverse Cultural and Racial Groups in Metropolitan Toronto. Toronto- Social Planning Council of Metropolitan Toronto, 1987, 3 v.

Epp, Jake. Achieving Health for All: A Framework for Health Promotion. Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada, c1986, 13 p. Published also in French under the title: La Sante pour tous: plan d'ensemble pour la promotion de la sante.

Kitchener-Waterloo Council of Churches Bridging the Gap:Beyond Refugees' Material Needs. Kitchener, Ont.: 1988.

Kurien, J. "Indo-Canadian: Our Modus Operandi and Our Institutions. " In Newsletter (National Association of Canadians of Origins in India, Montreal Chapter). v.7, no. 1, 1987.

Malarek, Victor. Haven's Gate: Canada's Immigration Fiasco. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, c1987,262 p.

Moffic, H.S., et al. "Education in Cultural Psychiatry in the United States." In Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review and Bulletin. v.24, no. 3, 1987, p. 167187.

Multiculturalism Act. n.p.: n.p., 1987.

Multicultaralism Policy. n.p.: n.p., 1971

Naipaul, V.S. A Bend in the River. New York: Vintage Books, 1980, c1979, 278 p.

One Child, Two Cultures: A Manual for Facilitating the Integration of Newcomer Children in Educational Settings. Winnipeg: Manitoba Dept. of Employment Services and Economic Security, Immigration and Settlement Branch, 1987,251 p.

Ontario. Cabinet Committee on Race Relations. Access to Trades and Professions in Ontario: Project Report. Toronto: 1987, various paging.

Peters, R. The Interagency Mental Health Council's Committee on Multiculturalism and Mental Health: Progress Update. Vancouver: Greater Vancouver Mental Service Society, 1988.

Rae, Michael. Multiculturalism, Racism, and the Classroom. Toronto: Canadian Education Association, 1982, 68 p. Published also in French under the title: Multiculturalisme et racisme a l'ecole.

Sabatier, C. The Mother and Her Infant: Cultural Variations. n.p.: Departement de psychologie, Universite du Quebec, n.d.

Scarry, Elaine. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985, vii, 38S p.

Seydegart, Kasia and G. Spears. Beyond Dialogue Immigrant Women in Canada, 1985-1990. n.p.: Erin Research, 1985, 114 1.

Sue, Stuntey. "Community Mental Health Services to Minority Groups: Some Optimism, Some Pessimism. " In American Psychologist. v. 32, no 8, Aug. 1977, p. 616-625.

Task Force on the Child as Citizen. Admittance Restricted: The Child as Citizen in Canada. Ottawa: Canadian Council on Children and Youth, 1978, 172, 195 p. English, French.

Wiebe Kathy. Violence Against Immigrant Women and Children: An Overview for Community Workers. Vancouver: Women Against Violence Against Women, Rape Crisis Center, 1985, 59p.

Background - Executive Summary - Chapter 1 - Chapter 2-6 - Chapter 7-9 - Chapter 10-11 - Chapter 12 Conclusion & Appendices

Virtual Library		Updated February 09, 2004