Metropolis - Toronto Centre of Excellence

2000 RFP Funded Research Projects

A. Community Domain

1. Product of Canada?! Caribbean-Canadians, Family, Transnationalism and the Settlement Process

Research Team (lead researcher, community partners):

Carl James, Faculty of Education, York University

The Jamaican Canadian Association (JCA)

Start Date: September 2000

Date of Completion: Sept. 1, 2001

Amount awarded from CERIS: $17,400

Synopsis

This research has examined the employment experiences and mobility of second-generation Caribbean men and women who completed post secondary schooling in Canada. The findings suggest that second-generation Caribbean-origin men and women have adapted to Canada according to a segmented assimilation model. For the most part this has meant becoming acculturated into a white middle class lifestyle while at the same time maintaining elements of Caribbean culture. New meanings, ideologies and patterns of behavior have developed among second generation Caribbeans in response to conditions and circumstances they encounter in their new “home”. From our data some tentative conclusions can be drawn about second generation Caribbeans with post secondary schooling qualifications. These include:

(a) experiences with institutional and systemic discrimination in the Canadian workplace operate as barriers to gaining employment; (b) a promotional “glass-ceiling” exists which prevents individuals from reaching their potential or achieving their aspirations; (c) post-secondary education provides women with more mobility opportunities than it does men; and (d) ethnicity (African compared to South Asian) and skin color are important factors which regulate how much discrimination an individual is likely to encounter in Canada.

Summary of Research Results

The principal aim of this research was to examine the employment experiences and mobility of second generation Caribbean men and women who completed post-secondary schooling in Canada. Primarily, the purpose of the research was to determine if being “Canadianized” and having qualifications were the key ingredients for second generation Caribbeans to overcome the systemic and institutional barriers of discrimination that their parents faced when they first tried to get good jobs in the Canadian workforce. We used the 1991 Canadian Census and a non-random survey of Caribbeans in Toronto (n=328) to provide a general statistical profile of the achievements of this particular group. In addition, we used life-history interviews with 50 second generation Caribbean-origin men and women. This qualitative approach has yielded much needed new data about the employment experiences and mobility for the second generation who have completed post-secondary schooling in Toronto. More specifically, at this preliminary stage in our analysis the following broad and tentative observations can be made.

Although second generation Caribbeans have post-secondary schooling many reported that they are facing institutional and structural barriers of discrimination that prevent them from obtaining “good jobs” in the Canadian workforce.

Many interviewees reported that a “glass ceiling” for promotion exists in the Canadian work place and it is especially difficult for them as non-whites to penetrate the invisible barrier.

The experiences in the workforce for men are quite different than it is for women. Men reported that co-workers were often hostile towards them and that they were regarded as being a threat. As a result some of the men felt that they worked in a chilly climate which made them not enjoy their work environment.

Post secondary education seems to give a better payoff to Caribbean-origin women in terms of mobility and prestige than men. The men reported greater levels of frustrations in obtaining jobs commensurate with their schooling, qualifications and experience.

The work experiences seem to be different also based on ethnicity and skin color. African Caribbeans reported much higher incidents of systemic and institutionalized discrimination than did South Asian or mixed ethnicity Caribbeans. Skin color also seemed to be an important determinant of success in the Canadian workforce. Lighter skinned individuals reported much less difficulties in the workplace or in Canadian society as a whole.

Age seemed to play an important part in the amount of discrimination that individuals reported in the Canadian workplace. Older individuals reported higher incidents of workplace discrimination which ranged from racist name calling at work; being overlooked for promotion; being subjected to racist jokes in the workplace; and not being treated the same by the boss.

In order to cope with the frustrations of blocked mobility in Canada a large number of the second generation interviewees reported that they had developed coping strategies which involved redefining, or reorganizing their situation in order to deal with the frustrations of life in Canada.

(1) Some went back to school to obtain more qualifications in the hope that this would work in their favor and help them to obtain promotions they might have been denied.

(2) Some adopted a “never give up” philosophy.

(3) Some sought innovative ways around barriers rather than trying to break these barriers down.

(4) The family, both immediate and transnational, seems to provide a major support for second generation Caribbeans who find disappointments in the Canadian workplace

(5) The church was identified as an important institution that provides mental strength for the day-to-day disappointments in Canada.

The mobility strategies which the men and women in this study put in place are varied. Some of the strategies included: coming to terms with Canada being a racist society and then working from there; becoming mentally strong; working twice as hard to gain recognition; becoming part of the social networks in Canada; becoming involved in entrepreneurial adventures which include starting their own businesses; or looking towards remigration to other countries as an opportunity to get access to better employment options. Overall, the mobility strategies initiated in Canada allowed the men and women to actively respond, manage, manipulate and control whatever new circumstance confronted them.

Survey Data Findings

A survey questionnaire was created and copies were distributed in the community with the help of the Jamaican Canadian Association, Caribbean newspapers, radio stations and community people. It was therefore, not a random sample but we felt that it adequately represented the population we were interested in finding out about -- namely the children of immigrants who had gone on to complete post-secondary schooling. We distributed 500 questionnaires and by our cut-off date of January 1^st 1998, we had received 328 replies. Of these, 82 percent had completed some post-secondary schooling. The survey covered: work experience; satisfaction with work; career aspirations; opinions about equity in the workplace; opinions about life in Canada and background characteristics.

Among the 328 respondents, 59 percent were female and 41 percent were male. Only 8 percent had been born in Canada, but a large proportion arrived as children, so that 87 percent have Canadian citizenship. We limit the highlights below to some of the experiences in the workplace and in Canada in general.

In The Workplace

Of those in the labor force, 29 percent had been unemployed in the past five years and 15 percent had reported being laid off in the past five years. Few of our respondents reported that they found a new job via “official” government job assistance agencies, 40 percent reported relying on their own initiative and a further 31 percent used friend, family and kin networks to find work. Just over half (51 percent) of our respondents were working in the service sector as teachers or in social and community services.

In the workplace our respondents reported that they experienced various levels of overt and covert acts of discrimination. Just below a quarter (24 percent) reported having experienced “racist name calling”. Over 40 percent reported that they felt overlooked for promotion because of their race or ethnicity. Just under a half had been exposed to “racist jokes” being told by co-workers or superiors while in their presence. As many as half (50 percent) did not feel that their boss treated them equally. Just over 25 percent felt that they were being discriminated against at work because of their place of birth.

In Canada

With respect to life in Canada, our respondents provided a very optimistic picture about their own future. Only a fifth (22 percent) felt that race relations in Canada were getting worse. More than three quarters (78 percent) were satisfied or very satisfied with Toronto as a place to live. Two-thirds (66 percent) felt that Toronto was a good place to raise children and less than one third of our respondents (32 percent) wanted to return to the Caribbean if it was possible tomorrow. What was particularly significant about the respondents views about life in Canada was that well over half (56 percent) felt that the police treat African Caribbeans with less respect than they do other ethnic groups. Furthermore, 57 percent of the respondents felt that Black men were the most vulnerable to discrimination in Canada compared to any other group. A new issue which seems to have emerged from our data is that Caribbean people are afraid when crossing international borders because they tend to experience a significant amount of harassment from customs and immigration officers who seem to be selective in their treatment of non-white landed immigrants or Canadian citizens.

Quantitative Data

The quantitative approach has confirmed existing information as well as yielded some interesting new data about the mobility of Caribbeans in Canada. This includes such facts as:

(1) A much lower proportion of females than males work in manual occupations (females are highly concentrated in clerical and service occupations);

(2) Twelve percent of Canadian-born males of Caribbean-origin are more likely to be employed in manual occupations than non-visible minorities;

(3) Females are consistently earning less money than males;

(4) Dominant group members in Canada tend to earn higher average incomes than minority group members. This difference is however, less acute among females than males;

(5) Except in the case of foreign-educated females, Caribbeans tend to have the highest proportions of unemployment; and

(6) In all cases, non-visible minorities have the lowest proportions of unemployed.

Considerations for Policy Development

The study does point to the need for government policy makers to take notice of the particular discrimination faced by Black and South Asian Caribbean-born people with post secondary schooling.

The Federal Government of Canada needs to be more assertive with employment equity legislation as a means of addressing discrimination in the workplace. It also needs to establish incentives for private companies who introduce employment equity policies.

The Provincial Government of Ontario needs to make a commitment to employment equity programs and to re-introduce employment equity legislation.

The Canadian Human Rights Commission needs to be given more support by the government. This includes the passing of tougher legislation which allows the Commission to levy stiffer fines or sanctions against companies or organizations found in violation of human rights.

Newspaper editors need to be more vigilant in terms of decisions about how news stories get reported about minority groups in Canada. The past practice of sensationalizing newspaper stories by printing the accused race, place of birth or ethnicity needs to be rethought since this does nothing more than to divide the Canadian population along racial or ethnic lines and contributes to the criminalization of non-whites.

The private sector in Canada needs to become more proactive in putting in place hiring practices which work towards eliminating such practices as word of mouth hiring, or only hiring graduates from certain universities in Canada.

The police need to make more of an effort to improve their operating procedures, policies and practices when dealing with Caribbeans in Canada. This involves eliminating such practices as selective surveillance, overt harassment and provocation.

Canadian immigration and customs officials need to be sensitized so that they come to recognize that Caribbean-origin people are Canadian citizens who should be accorded all the rights and respect that this title carries. Selective harassment of flights originating in Caribbean countries like Jamaica, Trinidad or Guyana is an insult to returning Caribbean Canadians.

Teachers, Principals and Guidance Counselors at the primary and secondary levels need to be vigilant in their efforts to encourage Caribbean-origin students to pursue post-secondary schooling as a means for achieving mobility in Canada.

Research Collaboration

Since this project began a number of international and local collaborators have been supportive. In Great Britain there is currently an ongoing Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) project entitled: Living Arrangements, Family Structure and Social Change of Caribbeans in Britain. The project is exploring similar themes and is led by Professors Mary Chamberlain and Harry Goulbourne. The results obtained from our project are now being used for a larger comparative analysis of the second generation in Great Britain.

On the Canadian side, community support for our project has been overwhelming. The first stage of the project was written up in a number of local community newspapers. Locating individuals to complete the questionnaire or as participants to be interviewed was facilitated by the publicity received in the media, as well as by the fact that many people volunteered from within the Caribbean community. Some of the volunteers went to great lengths to distribute and collect surveys.

Strong support also came from our community collaborators. The executive director of the Jamaican Canadian Association, Debbie Headley, was instrumental in helping to locate research subjects, as well as distributing and collecting questionnaires.

Training Opportunities

This project provided training opportunities for two males and one female graduate student in the Department of Sociology and the Faculty of Education at York University. The graduate students received training in questionnaire design, interviewing technique, census data interpretation, presenting at national conferences, working with community groups, and academic writing. An undergraduate student at Ryerson Polytechnic University was also used for library research and survey distribution. A high school student was trained for questionnaire coding and data input. In addition, the data set and questionnaire were used in the teaching of undergraduate research methods classes both at York University and Oregon State University. Four students at York University went on to use part of the data set for the presentation of their final research paper.

Dissemination:

1998 Paper was presented by Professor Clifford Jansen at the Metropolis Education Research Forum (MERF). Meeting of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education (CSSE) at the University of Ottawa, May 29, 1998. This presentation has been posted to the Web and can be consulted at: http://www.canada.metropolis.globalx.net/events/merf/Jansenmerf.html1.

1998 Lecture given by Professor Carl James at an International Women’s Day Forum. Jamaican Canadian Association. The forum was organized by the National Action Committee on the Status of Women, March 28, 1998. Title: “Black Women and Men Building a Community Based on Equality”.

1998 Keynote speech by Professor Carl James at the Alliance Insurance Brokers Ltd. Annual Awards Ceremony, February 20, 1998

1998 Paper presented by Professor Dwaine Plaza at the Caribbean Studies Association meetings,

1998 Antigua., Paper title: “Global Wanderers: Second Generation Caribbeans Continuing to Pursue the Mobility Dream” May 26

1997 Saeed Hydralli A graduate student working on the project presented preliminary findings at the Joint Center meeting in Montreal. November 1997.

1999 The Caribbean Studies Association Conference in May (Panama City) (Panel being organized on the 2^nd generation of Caribbeans in the international diaspora).

1999 Congress of Humanities and Social Sciences Conference (Paper presented on mobility for 2^nd generation Caribbeans in Canada)

1999 The British Caribbean Association Meetings, (Warwick) (Paper presented on a comparison of the mobility strategies used by Caribbeans in Canada and Britain).

A book contract is currently being negotiated with Fernwood Publishing Company. Preliminary correspondence has been promising. The book will be titled: Despite the Odds: Caribbeans in Southern Ontario.

B. Economic Domain

1. Apprenticeship Opportunities and Barriers for Immigrant Youth in the GTA

Research Team (lead researcher, community partners):

June Yee, Community Services, Ryerson Polytechnic University;

Ontario Association of Youth Employment Centres

Start Date: Sept. 1, 2000

Date of completion: Sept 1 2001

Amount awarded from CERIS: $15,180

Synopsis

Survey data and qualitative research conducted with staff and immigrant youth at Toronto’s youth employment centers document barriers and opportunities to apprenticeship programs that are not experienced by youth in general. Some of the barriers included: Canadian work experience and credential assessment, knowledge of apprenticeship, language issues and discrimination. In addition, a barrier analysis of the client path provided an important first step towards the need for the full implementation of the multicultural/anti-racism organizational change policy within youth employment centers in the Greater Toronto Area. The study was conducted by three research partners: June Yee, Ryerson University, School of Social work; Dr. Carolyn Johns, Ryerson University, Department of Politics and Public Administration and Sandra Tam from the Ontario Association of Youth Employment Centres (OAYEC). The project was also assisted by two Research Assistants: Noeline Paul-Apputhurai and Izida Zorde.

Brief Overview of the Research Undertaken

In the context of a rapidly changing labour market in Canada, youth employment remains an economic policy objective for both levels of government. Apprenticeship has for some time been viewed as an important option for school-to-work transition. As a training and labour market program in Ontario, apprenticeship has recently been the focus of reform efforts to attract youth to the traditional skilled trades and emerging skilled service areas. Presently there are three paths, or access points, to apprenticeships for youth in Ontario, each involving different service providers. This project focuses on out-of-school youth who have either dropped out of high school, spent some time in post-secondary education or the labour market and access apprenticeship as part of Youth Opportunities Ontario, and the Job Connect Program which is mainly implemented by Youth Employment Centres (YECs). Access to apprenticeship programs was provided by the research partner for this study, OAYEC, a non-profit organization, which provides youth employment services through its 50 member agencies in Ontario. Due to their common mandate of serving disadvantaged youth, particularly the large immigrant and visible minority youth population in the Greater Toronto Area, the agencies have a special interest in improving employment opportunities for immigrant youth. At the same time, OAYEC member agencies are expected to increase youth access to apprenticeships as part of the recent provincial reforms to the apprenticeship system.

The study is framed by fundamental questions such as: What are the opportunities and challenges for immigrant youth access to apprenticeship? Is apprenticeship a less appealing option for immigrant youth? If so, why? How can apprenticeship opportunities be improved for immigrant youth? This research study responds to the need to empirically document any barriers and opportunities that may exist for immigrant youth in accessing apprenticeship training programs in the Greater Toronto area (GTA). These dual challenges have converged into a research interest in the issues surrounding apprenticeship access for immigrant youth in the GTA.

The study builds on previous research by the Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement (CERIS) on the needs and concerns of newcomer youth. Previous research by CERIS and other agencies in Canada indicates that there is agreement among service providers that the needs of immigrant youth vary by cultural and racial background and by gender. In particular, this project hopes to outline the emerging “best practices” used by service providers such as employment agencies who attempt to support the integration of immigrant youth into Canadian society.

Data collection for this research study was conducted from May 2000 through to February 2001. To begin, a literature and government document review of the experiences of immigrant and refugee youth with employment opportunities was conducted to gain some background information. The literature review specifically focused on labour market trends for youth in general and immigrant youth in particular. Managers of youth employment centres and personnel from the Apprenticeship Branch of the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities (MTCU) and the Toronto Apprenticeship Office were also consulted to collect background information on the roles and responsibilities of different units and personnel involved in the implementation of apprenticeship in Ontario.

The methods employed for this research project involved the use of quantitative and qualitative measures. Three components were used to collect primary data and build on secondary research conducted to date. First, a quantitative survey of employment agency personnel, second, interviews and a focus group with employment agency personnel and third, a focus group with immigrant youth who access general services from youth employment agencies in the Greater Toronto Area. As part of the methodology and to assist in future program development, a client path and detailed outline which identifies the barriers encountered by the client in accessing information, resources, services and support to the program was also identified and documented. The suggested recommendations for improvements to the client path emerged from the data collected from both the client perspective (immigrant youth) and YEC personnel on their experiences in accessing apprenticeship opportunities specific to immigrant youth.

Research Results

The findings of this research project indicate that apprenticeship training is a youth labour market strategy that presents both opportunities and barriers for immigrant youth. The research suggests that despite the potential success of apprenticeship training, there are many levels of barriers present that raise concerns over accessibility by immigrant youth. Notably, acculturation stress is a significant factor which immigrant youth must face. This type of pressure can also curtail the adjustment period for immigrant youth in Canada. Further, the access to network capital will likely affect the immigrant youth’s interest in apprenticeship training. Youth with strong intra-ethnic ties, and who originate from ethnic groups, which have a noticeable presence in the skilled trades, will have stronger connections to apprenticeship. The converse is also true and can impede the immigrant youth’s entry into apprenticeship training. Moreover, discrimination undoubtedly impacts access of apprenticeship for immigrant youth. The consequences of devaluation of certain skills, accreditation, and experience, based on essentially discriminatory hiring practices, may lead to lower rates of apprenticeship training participation, or perhaps, render apprenticeship training less attractive for immigrant youth.

In any case, it is important to note the relationship between discrimination and apprenticeship training. Similarly, the same comments can be drawn from the interplay of socioeconomic status. Language barriers for immigrant youth present major difficulties for career planning and access to employment generally. Evidence from this study suggests that this barrier is compounded by other barriers immigrant youth face in accessing apprenticeship in Ontario. While there is clearly a role for the provision of settlement and language support services in addressing barriers immigrant youth face, funding cuts to these services leave the effectiveness of such service-delivery systems in question. Deeper, more fundamental policy and service delivery change is needed.

Although the Greater Toronto Area YECS have adopted the policy of multicultural/antiracism organizational change, the implementation of the policy remains limited to some collaborative work with settlement and ethno-specific organizations and some apprenticeship education and awareness programs aimed specifically at immigrant youth. However, any organization that adopts a multicultural/antiracism organizational change policy must also accept the concept of “anti-racism.” In other words, the problem of racism exists not only in society as a whole, but also within their own organizations. In practical terms, this means that YECs must develop pro-active measures that challenge discriminatory practices, which may intentionally or unintentionally create barriers in access to their apprenticeship programs.

The actual implementation of the multicultural/antiracism policy remains to be seen given the existence and prevalence of systemic, agency, cultural and individual level barriers. According to Henry et al., (2000): “the antiracism approach to change is based on a commitment to eradicate all forms of social oppression and racial disadvantage in the organization.” Therefore, if YECs are not willing to address the various levels of barriers, the agency needs to adopt an antiracism organizational change process. As commented by Henry et al., (2000): “A commitment in antiracist organizations is based on an acknowledgement that racism exists, that it manifests itself in various forms at the individual, institutional and systemic levels, and that it is embedded in the mass culture of the dominant group.” (Henry et al., 2000, p. 378) Greater Toronto Area YECs must develop pro-active measures that challenge discriminatory practices, which may intentionally or unintentionally create barriers in access to apprenticeship programs. Such a process requires the involvement of the executive director, management, board, staff and volunteers to address the barriers existing within the life and culture of the organization. Furthermore, the validation of the lived experiences and realities of immigrant youth, including their perceptions and approaches needs to be seriously reflected in the way YEC structures their program delivery model in apprenticeship programs. This can occur by allowing immigrant youth and families to actively participate in program planning, delivery and implementation of apprenticeship programs. Finally, YECs are mainstream agencies that originally adopted antiracism change policies in recognition of the need to serve and meet the needs of culturally diverse populations. This research study successfully carried out the first step of the antiracism change policy by identifying the systemic, agency, individual, and cultural level of barriers existing in youth access to apprenticeship programs. Hopefully, this research encourages YEC to take the next step of addressing the barriers via a multicultural antiracism organizational change process.

Overview of Contributions to Policy Development

As outlined above, this research project had a stated objective of being community based and participatory. The primary contribution of the research from an agency perspective was the awareness that the research itself brought to employment agencies in the GTA, that is, the potential barriers immigrant youth may face in accessing and participating in apprenticeship. The research also resulted in practical suggestions for policy change at the agency, inter-agency and broader levels. Detailed policy recommendations from youth employment agency staff, the client path analysis, the Ontario Association of Youth Employment Agencies and general policy observations on how apprenticeship could be improved in Ontario for immigrant youth were all outcomes of the research project.

On the opportunities side, there were some positive developments identified by employment agency staff as a result of apprenticeship reform in Ontario. Some noted that coordination and joint meetings occurred between three Job Connect agencies involved in implementing new apprenticeship program goals. Others noted that some training for staff had occurred and a travelling information workshop called “Trades in Motion” was delivered to staff at several agencies.

Employment agency personnel also had some insightful observations and suggestions on how access to apprenticeship could be improved for out-of-school immigrant youth. The employment agency staff identified several barriers that they felt were part of the apprenticeship program in Ontario itself and generally recommended: more information and training on apprenticeship reforms and specific information targeted at immigrant youth; and better connections with employers, other employment and ethno-specific agencies and the local apprenticeship offices. OAYEC also recommended that various stakeholders involved in apprenticeship in the province and the federal government institutionalize a policy dialogue around apprenticeship and the specific barriers faced by immigrant youth.

In addition, specific policy problems were identified by employment agency personnel as well as by OAYEC in terms of broader policy issues. Policy recommendations stemming from the research include: addressing the jurisdictional challenges of coordinating services for immigrant youth; improving intergovernmental data collection on apprenticeship participation across jurisdictions; creating a multi-stakeholder advisory group on youth apprenticeship; developing public awareness and promotion campaigns; collecting data on participation of immigrant youth in Ontario.

Recent reform initiatives to increase youth participation in apprenticeship will not be effective unless the barriers in the youth labour market are addressed. Addressing the barriers identified in this study will not be feasible until a broader multicultural/antiracism framework is employed at the broader policy level and all four levels of barriers outlined in the client path.

Collaborative Research and Training Opportunities Provided

This research was conducted with the Ontario Association of Youth Employment Centres (OAYEC), a non-profit organization, which provides youth employment services through its 50 member agencies in Ontario. Thirteen youth employment agencies in the Greater Toronto Area participated in the survey research, and it was distributed to a total of 19 agencies. In total, 95 mail survey questionnaires were sent out with 41 of them returned. The response rate was 43 percent. A total of 9 qualitative interviews were conducted with staff. In addition, 2 focus groups with staff regarding the client path and 1 focus group, which had 12 immigrant youth participants, were held.

Carolyn Johns and June Yee trained two Research Assistants on the CERIS Grant. The research assistants were a 3^rd year law student and a graduate student who jointly assisted with the following activities: (1) collected, analyzed and wrote a literature review based on information from a variety of sources to develop some baseline information about immigrant youth in apprenticeship in Canada; (2) executed library and internet-based searches to identify relevant sources of information; (3) liaised and attended meetings with community agencies and public service professionals to collect data and develop research linkages; (4) assisted with the development, administration, synthesis and analysis of a survey instrument to be disseminated to OAYEC agencies and personnel in the GTA; (5) conducted semi-structured interviews and/or focus groups to gather qualitative data; (6) transcribed and coded the qualitative data; and

(7) assisted with the writing of the working paper.

Dissemination:

Yee, June Ying and Carolyn M. Johns (2002). “The Struggles in Implementing Antiracist Organizational Change Models within Mainstream Agencies: The Case of Immigrant Youth in Apprenticeship Programs.” Canadian Social Work Review Journal. To be submitted April, 2002.

Yee, June Ying and Carolyn M. Johns. (2001). “Apprenticeship Opportunities and Barriers for Immigrant Youth” (Report on CERIS: RFP Funded Research Project). Toronto: Centre of Excellence for Immigration Research and Settlement (CERIS). December 1, 2001, pp. 1-60.

Tam, Sandra (2001). “Access to Apprenticeship for Immigrant Youth.” Toronto: Association of Youth Employment Centres. November, 2001, pp. 1-19.

Yee, June Ying and Carolyn M. Johns (2001). “Apprenticeship Opportunities and Barriers for Immigrant Youth” Workshop. 5^th National Metropolis Conference. Ottawa, Ontario. October 19, 2001

Tam, Sandra, Carolyn M. Johns and June Ying Yee. (2001). “Helping Immigrant Youth Access Apprenticeships.” National Consultation on Career Development. Ottawa, Ontario. January 22-24, 2001.

C. Education Domain

1. Latin American Families and Social Service Providers: Interactions on parenting Issues Arising in Elementary School Settings

Research Team (lead researcher, community partners):

Judith Bernhard, Early Childhood Education, Ryerson Polytechnic University;

Hispanic Development Council

Start Date: September 2000

Date of completion: September, 2003

Amount awarded from CERIS: $28,692

Synopsis

The purpose of this exploratory study was to understand a) Latin American parents’ views of and concern about disciplinary practices at school; b) the parents’ ideas about the connection between home and school discipline, and c) parents’ understanding of the officially prescribed consequences of behaviour identified as non-tolerable. Sixty-five Latin-American mothers with young children were interviewed about their perceptions of school discipline and comportment issues. An area of concern expressed by the mothers related to their children’s encounters with ‘zero tolerance’ legislation, and related rules for conduct, implemented by the local school boards.

Details of research undertaken

The new rules in school discipline pose a difficult situation for many migrant parents. A large proportion of parents do not have the knowledge and time necessary to respond to very complex set of new rules and the quasi-legal nature of suspension and appeals. Thus, most suspensions and expulsions are uncontested, causing migrant children and youth, especially of the working class, to become disengaged and alienated. The following questions provided a focus for the investigation:

1. To what extent do parents and teachers agree about disciplinary practices and significant infractions of discipline at school? The focus was on key issues such as definitions of minor and major offences and application of fair adjudicative practices;

2. In terms of their culture, what are the parents’ ideas about the connection between home and school discipline? and

3. What is the nature of parents’ understanding of the officially prescribed consequences of behaviour identified as non-tolerable?

The participants were recruited through contact with community agencies. The criteria for participation was that the parents had arrived in Canada in the last 10 years and had at least one child under the age of 18. We received the names of 100 families. All families whose members had not been seen by mental health professionals and had not formally received services for psychological or emotional problems were invited to participate and none of them declined. After the initial telephone contact and selection, we were able to complete interviews with sixty-five parents.

The majority of the participants were between 25 and 44 years of age (83 percentage, n=54). Fifty-six were women, and in nine cases, both mother and father participated in the interview. The majority of the participants were married (60 percentage, n=39), and the majority of them (74 percentage, n=48) had acquired education beyond high school. The mean time they had been in Canada was 6.2 years.

The sample included parents who immigrated from Central and South American countries to Toronto (Chile, n=17; Colombia, n=16; Ecuador, n=14; El Salvador, n=10; other, n=8).

Each family was interviewed by a senior member of the research team in face-to-face interviews that lasted between two and four hours. The interviews were in Spanish and conducted at the family’s home or at the local community centre. At the beginning of the interview, we explained that the purpose was to understand the children’s situation in the school. Questions or topics introduced focused on first-hand experiences. Our phrasings were open-ended, for example: Who here at home is in charge of communicating with the school? When the child has a serious problem at school, who takes care of it? Using neutral wording, we asked about the parents’ impression of the school’s discipline, if any, in relation to the child. Further, we probed specifically for any cases of disagreement with the school and attempted to form an idea of the frequency and depth of disagreement or agreement. While we endeavoured to appear and be sympathetic, we did not indicate an opinion of the disagreement or of our view of its resolution. Additionally, parents were asked to show us documentation from the school, including report cards and to explain their content. Although these families did not lack disciplinary problems (defined in their own terms), they appeared generally to be functional, with adequate controls that were, in our opinion, not unduly harsh.

Detailing of research results:

Parents and teachers do not distinguish major and minor misbehaviour in the same ways. Parents downplay verbal exchanges and don’t agree with a legalistic or ‘zero tolerance’ approach. For many of the mothers, a broad range of behaviour was tolerated as normal child’s play: boys pushing each other or pulling a girl’s braids would be seen as expected behaviour among children. Major categories of misbehaviour were seen as those which undermine or disrespect authority.

Parents reported that schools and teachers do not appear to set up an adequate training and discipline system, one that would be continuous with the system in place at home. They are judged to be overly tolerant and lax in response to moral conduct type issues. Many parents were puzzled as to how they could set up an effective and strict system at home if the rules at school were so lax. Parents were getting the message that they need to do more at home to get the child to behave but felt it could not be done on their own since rules need to be followed up both at home and at school in order to work.

Nature of Collaborations:

Two of the team members were employed by the Children’s Aid Society. Two worked in community centres in an area of high immigrant influx from Latin America. One team member, from Chile, completed post-graduate training in psychiatry, in Canada, and is a school board Chief Psychiatrist. Another team member emigrated from Chile at 16 years of age, and ultimately received her doctorate in education, in Canada. A fourth year Ryerson student was also part of the research team involved.

Dissemination:

Publications:

Bernhard, J. K. (In Press) The school ‘misbehavior’ of Latino children in a time of Zero Tolerance: Parents’ views. Early Years Journal (refereed).

Shor, R., and Bernhard, J.K. (In press). A comparative study of conflicts experienced between immigrant parents in Canada and in Israel and professionals in educational institutions about appropriate responses to children misbehavior. Intercultural Education (refereed).

Conference presentations:

Disciplining bodies, disciplining minds: The complex case of immigrant children in U.S. public schools. Reconceptualizing Early Childhood Conference. Tempe, AR, January 2003.

Natives, immigrants, missionaries and exiles repatriated: the experiences of global migration and implications for young children and their families. NAEYC Annual Conference, New York, November 20, 2002.

Cultural considerations in child discipline. Keynote speaker for Ontario Professional Development Conference for LINC Childminders. Toronto, November 23, 2001.

The educational challenges of children in care. Keynote speaker for forum on education sponsored by the Catholic Children’s Aid Society. Toronto, May 10, 2001.

D. Health Domain

1. Towards Healthier Bones: A Cross-sectional Study Examining Fracture Risk and Access to Care Among Chinese Immigrants

Research Team (lead researcher, community partners):

Angela Cheung, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto

Yee Hong Centre for Geriatric Care

Start Date: Sept. 1, 2000

Date of completion: Sept 1, 2001

Amount awarded from CERIS: $21,860

Abstract

Osteoporosis and falls are major risk factors for hip fractures. The clinical and economic sequelae of hip fractures are enormous to the individual as well as to the Canadian health care system. Research indicates that individuals of Asian decent are at high risk for osteoporosis, and new immigrants who are unfamiliar with the Canadian winter environment may be at increased risk for accidental falls. In addition, immigrants often present to the health care system only after they have experienced fracture. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate fracture risks, fall history, and access to care among Chinese immigrants. The results of this project will help develop an osteoporosis and fall prevention program that addresses the specific health needs of this population.

Overview of Research Undertaken

We conducted a community-based cross-sectional study to examine risk factors for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures among Chinese-Canadian immigrants aged 45 and older. Six hundred and fifty-six participants were recruited over one year (June 2000-July 2001) through media announcements, health fairs, and community outreach through community centres, shopping centres, churches and libraries which predominantly serve the Chinese community. Heel bone mineral density (BMD) measurements were obtained using Sahara Qualitative Ultrasound (QUS). Questionnaires were administered by Chinese-speaking interviewers. Participants were asked questions about lifestyle, medical history, diet, physical activity, history of falls, and use of alternative and mainstream preventive health care.

We have continued recruitment for the study and hope to enroll close to one thousand participants. The data obtained from this ongoing study will give rise to additional projects and training opportunities for students at the Bachelor and Master levels.

Research Results

In total, we were able to recruit 656 subjects through community centres and media announcements in the Greater Toronto Area. Personal interviews and heel quantitative ultrasound measurements were conducted by students fluent in Chinese. Over a one-year period, we were able to recruit 456 women and 200 men. Women in the study were, on average, 59.2 years old, 155.1 cm in height and 55.0kgs in weight. Men in the study were, on average, 62.5 years old, 167.5 cm in height and 65.5 kgs in weight.

Immigrants were mainly from Hong Kong (78 percent) and China (13 percent) and the mean duration in Canada was 12 years. Overall, 70 percent of women were married and 87 percent lived with family. Among men, 92 percent were married and 96 percent lived with family. Eleven percent of women and only 4 percent of men reported living alone.

Mean heel BMD was 0.499 g/cm² for females and 0.508 g/cm² for males; mean t-score was -0.12 for females and -0.91 for males. Approximately 4 percent of females and an equal proportion of males had t-scores in the osteoporotic range (below or equal to -2.5). Approximately 41 percent of females and 45 percent of males had t-scores in the osteopenic range (between -1.0 and -2.5). The proportion of women classified as osteopenic varies depending on the reference population used to calculate the t-score (Asian/Caucasian); the proportion classified as osteoporotic remain similar, but the number in this group was small.

The majority of participants made use of preventive health services. Most participants had had a physical exam in the past 3 years (95 percent), rates were similar for women and men, and most had had an eye exam in the past 2 years (84 percent of women; 87 percent of men). Although a portion of both women and men were likely to consult a traditional Chinese doctor when sick (7 percent and 4 percent respectively), the majority would consult with their family doctor (84 percent and 90 percent respectively). The population was generally healthy with the vast majority reporting their health status as average or above; 8.7 percent of women and 6.5 percent of men reported their health status as poor or very poor.

Contribution to Policy Development

Based on our preliminary results, we have had discussions with community agencies and the Osteoporosis Society of Canada to develop more comprehensive programs for this target population. One of the initiatives is to provide more information in the Chinese language, one of the gaps identified as a result of our project. We have also partnered with the Osteoporosis Society of Canada to submit a follow up proposal to the Ontario Women’s Health Council to fund a demonstration project in this population. We will be continuing these policy development discussions in the next few months.

Nature of Research Collaboration

The collaborating centres were instrumental in identifying and recruiting potential participants. As well, they provided space on their premises to conduct interviews, which reduced travel required on the part of the participants and likely increased recruitment.

The Yee Hong Center for Geriatric Care was our primary collaborator. They helped with advertising through Chinese media outlets (television and newspaper), helped identify potential participants, and donated space for conducting interviews.

Scadding Court Community Centre and the Second Mile Club also helped identify potential participants and donated space for conducting interviews. Mississauga Central Library and Mississauga South Common Community Centre Library donated space.

Training Opportunities Provided

This study provided training opportunities for six students over the course of a year and a half. Three students (CC, DL, JL) were involved in recruiting participants and were trained to administer questionnaires and obtain bone density measurements using the Sahara QUS device. One student was involved in creating and managing databases for data entry and preparing a poster presentation for the ASBMR Annual Meeting (NDG). Four students were involved in data entry of questionnaire data (CC,DL,JW,JL). All six students attended and participated in study meetings and were involved in the various aspects of ensuring data quality.

Dissemination:

Data were presented at the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research 23^rd Annual Meeting on October 16, 2001.

As well, a manuscript discussing the findings from this study will be prepared and submitted to a peer-reviewed journal in the near future

2. Chinese Immigrant Women Who Care for Aging Parents

Research Team (lead researcher, community partners):

Lynn McDonald, Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto

Chinese Interagency Network

Chinese Canadian National Council, Toronto Chapter

Start Date: Sept 1 2000

Date of completion: Sept. 1, 2001

Amount awarded from CERIS: $12,016

Executive Summary

The purpose of this pilot study was to examine the experiences of a group of Chinese immigrant women who provided care to their aging parents and the experiences of the parents who received the care. The cultural dimensions and immigrant experiences of the care-giving dyad was explored. In particular, we examined the experiences of the dyads living in three generational households, a common practice in the Chinese culture. This study was based on in-depth interviews with nine care-givers and recipients (18 respondents). We used a semi-structured interview schedule to explore the feelings and the challenges faced by the dyads in care-giving and how this was coloured by the immigration process.

Our findings indicated that the care-giving experience of women in three generational households can be a burden only when the care recipients are frail, and ill. Otherwise, the care-giving and receiving experience was not in one direction; rather it was reciprocal, this is especially so when the elderly parents were healthy and able. This reciprocal characteristic reflects the cultural traditions in the Chinese family system.

We also found that the mobility, independence, and the total life cycle of these elderly Chinese immigrants were affected by language barriers, transportation barriers, isolation, lack of culturally and linguistically sensitive health and social services, making care-giving especially challenging. The immigrant women who cared for frail elderly parents themselves faced additional challenges due to factors resulting from immigration, such as weak informal social networks, and the lack of culturally and linguistically sensitive health and social services.

On the other hand, the helping hands of the elderly parents lessened some of the struggles in settling in a new country mostly for the women and especially for those who had to participate in the work force to sustain the family. It was concluded that the inter-dependence between the generations assisted in the adaptation process to immigration for the whole family. Implications of the findings were discussed.

In the literature, it is widely recognized that women are more likely to be the primary care-givers in the family (Crawford et al., 1994; Aronson, 1994; Harris and Long, 1993). When they are married, not only do they shoulder the care for their spouse and children; they are also expected to continue to provide care for their parents. Even when they are at work, they are still obliged to carry on with these duties (Guberman and Maheu, 1999). Despite the potential for gaining satisfaction from providing care to others, the burden of these women is tremendously heavy (Chappell, 1992; Ngan and Cheng, 1992). However, most of these findings on care-giving patterns are mainly based on research studies on the white population. De Vries and associates (1996: 227) argue, “ethnicity rarely appears as a factor in the gerontological literature.” Ujimoto (1987) also suggests that the existing theories of aging may not be adequate when applied to particular ethnic groups. Since visible minority populations have been increasing steadily in Canada in the last three decades, particularly in larger cities such as Toronto and Vancouver, research on aging and ethnicity is urgently needed. The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of a group of Chinese immigrant women who provide care to their parents and / or in-laws, and the elderly people they care for in Toronto.

Substantial research has been devoted to women who care for aging parents (Lang and Brody, 1983; Brody and Schoonover, 1986). Adult children are considered to be the second major source of help to the elderly, other than the spouses of these elderly people (Atchley, 1997:208). These care-givers tend to be women in middle age (Crawford et al., 1994), either a married adult daughter or another married relative, who are also mothers of children (Shanas, 1962, cited in Lang and Brody 1983: 193).

Research suggests that the caring experience of these women involves hard work (Parker, 1985), sometimes it is a love/hate relationship (Aronson, 1994), it is stressful (Gee and Kimball, 1987: 87), and can be a juggling act (Guberman and Maheu, 1999).

Other studies point out that the burden of women is even greater when the care is provided in a multi-generational household. Women provide more care if the parent lives with them in the household (Lang and Brody, 1983; Rosenthal, 1986), although satisfaction in multigenerational households can also be found (Mindel and Wright, 1982).

As indicated above, most of the studies focus on a white population. Investigations into minority women care-givers is still largely neglected.

The majority of the Chinese in Canada are immigrants, partly due to the policy of exclusion before the war (Li, 1998: 72). Their immigrant experience has added new challenges to the care-giving experience of many Chinese-Canadian women. They, like their counterparts in Canada, share general care-giving responsibilities. They provide care for their spouses, and children, and their aging parents. A major consideration is why the immigrant experience makes this group of care providers unique. As Al-Issa (1997: 13) argues, “ethnic group immigrants are exposed to the same stressful experiences (major life events and daily hassles) as members of majority groups. However, because of the process of migration and their minority status, they experience acculturative stressors that are unique to them.”

Furthermore, another unique care-giving experience of Chinese-Canadian women is that they are more likely to live with their aging parents or parent-in-laws. It can be argued that a three generational household has been a common living arrangement throughout Chinese history. Extended family, in which a conjugal family, (usually a son’s), and the elderly parents live together, is the most common type of family in traditional China (Freeman, 1971: 43; Parish and Whyte, 1978: 135). As these studies show, adult children after they are married set up their own households, although one of them would continue to live with their parents. Ikels (1980: 94) finds that the usual practice in Hong Kong is that the elderly parents may choose to live with one of the adult children, usually a son, even though all of their adult children are married.

The data show that Chinese immigrants continue to maintain this type of living arrangement in Canada. Firstly, about 89 percent of Chinese immigrants aged 15-64 from Hong Kong and China live with their immediate family, compared to 86 percent for other immigrants, and 84 percent for the Canadian-born in this age range (Government of Canada, 1996a: 5-6; ibid., 1996b: 5-6). The same sources also reveal that far less Chinese senior immigrants aged 65 and over, or about 11 percent, live alone, compared to 25 percent for all immigrant seniors and 29 percent for Canadian-born seniors.

Furthermore, a significantly higher percentage of these Chinese seniors, about 65 percent, who did not live with their immediate family, lived with other relatives, compared with 29 percent of all immigrant seniors and 18 percent of Canadian-born seniors. In other words, Chinese-Canadian families tend to be larger because of this living arrangement (Li, 1998: 112) that may involve three generations. In Gee’s study in Greater Vancouver and Victoria (1999: 426), about 60 percent of the elderly live with at least one child, in an intergenerational household setting.

Despite the existing limited research on recent Chinese immigrants, a few studies have been devoted to women’s perspectives. These studies tend to explore their help seeking patterns (Wong, 1998), and their family life (Man, 1996). Studies pertaining to the care recipients tend to focus on the clinical aspects of the mental health of the elderly who live with their adult children (Mackinnon et al., 1996). Other studies tend to focus on the life-satisfaction of Chinese elderly (Lai and McDonald, 1995), the dependency of Chinese elderly on their family members and relatives (Wong and Reker, 1985) and factors that contribute to living arrangements of the Chinese elderly (Gee, 1997). None of them however, have focused on care-giving to parents and parents-in-law, or have studied the elderly as care receivers.

What are the challenges these Chinese immigrant women face when providing care to their aging parents? Some studies (Green, 1982; Masi et al., 1993) find that many recent immigrants might lack well-established informal social networks of relatives and friends who have proven to be useful, when they need help. In addition, as the literature suggests, minority immigrants might face barriers to accessing adequate formal social services even when they need them urgently. For example, the services might lack cultural and linguistic sensitivity, and the help-seeking pattern among the Chinese are different from non-Chinese. These might prevent them from accessing services. These women not only face the “usual” burdens as care-givers, but also need extra energy to adapt to a new living environment. The well-being of these women might be jeopardized because of stress. As a consequence, the lives of elderly parents and parents-in-law depending on them will be affected. How these women provide care for their aging parents, while they juggle care for their own families as they settle in this host country -- not to mention the demands of employment -- is a serious issue. No studies, to our knowledge, deal with care from both perspectives of the same care-giving dyad: care-giver and care receiver.

This study attempts to fill the gap in the existing literature, and to contribute a more complete understanding of the dynamic of care-giving in the Chinese community. We will explore the views on receiving care from the perspective of elderly parents; how they compare the care they received in their homelands with that in Toronto; and how they cope with the relocation stress. Furthermore, as research shows, younger members of the family adjust faster, while elderly parents sometimes find themselves in conflict with the changing values of their kin, an important difference we will also investigate (Driedger and Chappell, 1987: 99). How culture affects both parties in coping with the challenges in Canadian society needs to be investigated, for, as Wong and Peker (1985) argue, culture affects the selection of coping strategies.

In short, this study will examine the experiences of a group of Chinese immigrant women who provide care to their aging parents and the views of the parents who receive the care. The cultural dimensions and immigrant experiences of the care-giving dyad amongst them will be explored.

Findings

The first question we explored was to the reasons for forming these three-generational households in Canada, and how the women became the care-givers of their parents. The data from the interviews revealed a combination of different factors, which included cultural conditioning, family dynamics, and the nature of the surrounding social conditions.

It is not surprising to find that cultural conditioning played a strong role in deciding why the care-givers lived with their parents in the same household: it was a way of expressing filial responsibility since one of the major aspects of filial piety is that adult children are expected to take care of their parents when they are old. In our sample, only two parents had lived apart from their adult children for some time in Hong Kong, a period when the adult children formed their own families, and moved out of their parental homes. The other parents had always been living with at least one of their adult children even after they were married. When the parents moved to Canada, they continued to live with at least one of their adult children. In other words, these families continued to practice the living arrangements in Canada that they had followed in their homelands.

For example, Mary had been away from home to go to university in China, and spent the next ten years overseas while her husband earned his doctoral degree and worked. Now her family, including two teenage sons, is settling in Toronto, and so she invited her (both) parents to stay with her. The parents have been with her for more than a year now. She explained why she wanted her parents to come to Canada: “It’s the longest time to be with my parents since I was in university. At the time I usually stayed home only for one month or so, when I was on holidays. I want them to stay with me, if we can get along. You know, I am the eldest. I want to fulfill my responsibility. Now we can support and serve them.”

May, who is an accountant, had immigrated to Canada with her family seventeen years ago. She has three children, and is living with her mother-in-law. She was well prepared psychologically to live with her in-laws after marriage because her husband was the only child in his family. She believed it was her duty to live with her in-laws after marriage: “I was well aware of the situation when I was going out with my husband at the time, before we got married, that I was going to live with my mother-in-law after marriage, as she has only one child, who is my husband. So I guess she has to stay with us.”

Another reason related to cultural conditioning is that, to be dependent on one’s adult children when one has reached old age, is desirable in Chinese society (Palmore, 1980; Keith, Fry and Ikles, 1990). Although the parents in the interviews did not express explicitly that living with their adult children was the best living arrangement, they did not express the opposite either. In fact, all the parents, except one, were satisfied with their present living arrangement. The daughter of this dyad was in the process of arranging nursing home care for her mother who suffered from dementia. The reason for this arrangement is that the daughter is suffering from her own health problem, and felt that she had great difficulty taking care of her mother.

Some women, who commented on the reasons why they lived in a three-generational family, expressed that their elderly parents were “typical of Chinese elderly who preferred to live with younger generations.” They also expressed that “Chinese elderly people will accept the concept of living with their children.”

Catherine, her four children, and her mother have lived in Canada for 26 years. Both the mother and the daughter are widowed. Catherine’s only brother sponsored them to immigrate to Canada. Her comment on her mother was that: “After my father died, my mother lived alone for a short while. Then she moved to our place. After living two years together in Hong Kong, we came to Canada. She is the traditional type of Chinese woman who stay with her children. She didn’t like to be alone in Hong Kong. She had no choice but to come to Canada.”

The women in the study had several siblings so it was important to discover under what conditions these women have become their parents’ care-givers. Besides the need of these women to fulfill their filial responsibility, family dynamics also played a contributing role to the present living arrangements. Some dyads reported that the present arrangement was the only option that they could choose. Some dyads commented that the living arrangement evolved out of a whole series of family events. Our analysis of the data suggest that family dynamics included a wide array of family events, affection for parents, sharing the care for the parents among siblings, and the personal compatibility of the care-givers and receivers. A rather “touching” example, as told by a parent, involves a considerate daught