CERIS (Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement)

 

Public Seminar: “From Emigration to Immigration: Changing Trends in International Migration in Europe and the Case of Spain”.

 

Thursday, January 27, 2005. Room 548, 246 Bloor St. West, Toronto, 2:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m.

 

Presenter:

Dan Rodríguez-García, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain.

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto, and CERIS Visiting Scholar.

E-mail: dan.rodriguez@uab.es

Websites: http://antalya.uab.es/antropologia/cat/index.asp; http://seneca.uab.es/migracions/index_en.html

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The increase in international immigration and the new processes of interculturalism are challenging the social and political structures in Europe. This presentation will discuss the main socio-demographic trends in international migration in Europe, focusing, in general, on countries in Southern Europe and, in particular, on Spain – a “new” country of immigration, yet potentially one of the greatest reception areas for international migration in the Mediterranean. This presentation also intends to raise theoretical and social issues concerning the incorporation of immigrants into host societies by comparing European and Canadian contexts.

 

MIGRATION TRENDS IN THE  EUROPEAN UNION

 

Europe is a territory of 45 countries; 25 of which belong to the European Union (EU), with a Total Population of about 380 million people. Since 1950  Europe has continued to be an immigration receiving area. According to Eurostat, there are about 20 mill. foreigners (i.e., not nationals of their country of residence) in the EU, which represents around 5% of the Total population. However, the migratory behaviour of the different countries is very heterogeneous. Immigrants in the EU come primarily from the Maghreb (North Africa), Turkey, India, East Europe and West Africa, and settle primarily in: Germany, France, The U.K  and The Netherlands. The percentage of the population who are non-nationals ranges from 1.6% in Greece to 37% in Luxembourg.

 

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN SOUTHERN EUROPE: THE CASE OF SPAIN

 

In contrast to Northern Europen countries, where immigration took place mostly during the 1950s-1970s, the countries in Southern Europe (Spain, Italy, Portugal and Greece) have undergone during the last few decades a turnaround from countries of emigration to countries of immigration. 3  phases of Southern European  migration: 1) Emigration (overseas, until 1950s; to Northern Europe, 1950s-mid to 1970s); 2) Return (from mid-1970s); 3) Immigration (1980s-1990s,  first in Italy, 1972, then in Spain and Greece, 1975, and Portugal, 1981). The increase in international immigration and the new processes of interculturalism are challenging the social and political structures in Southern Europe, which is potentially one of the most important immigration regions in the Worl.

 

Spain had traditionally been a country of emigration, overseas and to Northern Europe (France, Germany, Switzerland), during the 1950s-1970s as guestworkers. Spaniards substituted Italian migrants as a labour force supply. Then Turks, Africans and South Asians have substituted Spaniards as a cheap labour force in those countries.

 

By the late 1970s, Spain became more and more a country of immigration. At the same time that the return of Spaniards was taking place, immigration from foreign countries started to grow. Spain has a characteristic “Double flow”; that is: migrants poor from developing countries (e.g., Morocco), and migrants from developed countries (e.g., Germany). The causes for this migration change can be summarised in three: a) Economic, political and demographic push factors; b) Increase of restrictions for immigration in Northern Europe; c) Booming Spanish economy in the late 1970s and early 1980s (after the Franco regime), which created a new demand for a cheap labour force, traditionally provided by internal migrants.

 

In 2001 resident immigrants (1,109,060) made up 2.7% of the Spanish population. In 2003, there were 2.6 million foreign residents in Spain, which represent about 6% of the Total population (still little compared to Canada’s 18.4%, Toronto  43.7%). The fact is that Spain has had the fastest growth in foreign immigration among EU countries. Yet, Spain can be considered a ‘new’ country of international immigration. Its legislation on immigration is relatively recent (the First Immigration Law -Ley Orgánica de Extranjería 7/1985- was passed in 1985) and is still undeveloped with respect to the design of a comprehensive policy of immigration.

 

During the last few years, there has been an important change in the origin of immigrants in Spain: immigration from EU countries has decreased, and immigration from non-EU countries has increased. Because of traditional colonial links, the Moroccans and Ecuatorians (also Peruvians and Colombians) are the largest foreign nationalities in Spain. Immigration from Asia has also increased in the last few years, especially from China, which represents 43.8% of the total Asian immigration (other important groups are: Pakistan, India and Philippines). As for the Age structure, foreign residents are much younger than the host population. Also the percentage of Children born to foreing parents has increased dramatically during the last few years: from 4.9% in 1999 to 45% in 2002 (it has to be taking into account Spain has the lowest birht rate in the World: 1.2 until 2002, and 1.3 in 2004). As for the labour market, foreigners represent 4.7% of the Total Labour force in Spain. In general, they concentrate in Services (59.2%) and construction (17.2%). But there are many differences by nationality (e.g., Latin-American and Filipinian women in the domestic service; African migrants in agriculture). Concerning patterns of settlement, there is a pattern of concentration in the Mediterranean coastal provinces (from Malaga to Girona), Madrid (the capital), and the Balearic and Canary Islands, because of their diversified economy. Catalonia: is the region with the highest number of migrants in Spain, and in the Mediterranean context is potentially one of the greatest reception areas of international migration.

 

Despite the slow start, since the early 2000s, immigration has appeared on Spain’s political agenda, making it clear that the issue is no longer just a technical and administrative concern. The priorities of the Spanish Government concerning immigration match those of the EU –from the Schengen Treaty of 1985 and the Maastricht Treaty of 1992– in emphasising the control of flows, while disregarding access to citizenship and the integration of resident immigrants. Indeed, the vagueness of the concept ‘integration’ points to the limitations in access to civil rights. The Government’s overall immigration policy statement is the Overall Programme for the Regulation and Co-ordination of Alien Affairs and Immigration in Spain (abbreviated as GRECO), that was approved in 2000. The Programme includes four basic goals: two relating to control and regulation, and two to protection and integration. However, it doesn’t include any measurable goal for government action; does not specify the human and financial resources allocated to carry it out; and does not indicate time frames to carry out the actions or reach the goals established. Access to citizenship and integration policies are limited because immigrants are still seen as temporary workers (guestworkers). Moreover, access to citizenship is easier for certain origins (e.g. Latin-Americans) than others (e.g. sub-Saharan Africans), according to the immigration quota system, which favours the arrival of immigrants with similar social and cultural characteristics.

 

From a negative point of view, the arrival of immigrants is considered to increase competitiveness on the labour market… The demographic argument is used by most politicians as an explanatory factor for the decrease in wages. Moreover, socially and Institutionally, Cultural difference is seen as a Threat (e.g. Regarding Public space of cultural diversity: Muslims as a threaten à proofs of racism and xenophobia concerning the construction of mosques in the cities; also controversy on the use of hijab in school…).

 

In brief, the ‘Integration model’ in Spain is closer to Assimilation than to Pluralistic integration (even though Spain is one of the most plural European countries in terms of autonomic composition and plural identities, 17 autonomous communities: Catalonia, Basc country, etc.). Despite the fact that some autonomies have a more elaborated policy of immigration than does the rest of Spain (e.g., Catalonia), in general, it is possible to distinguish between a majority society and a foreign immigrant minority, within the context of a predominant minorities/majority assimilation model, where the fact that “Integration” is a two-way process of accomodation between newcomers and the host population, is disregarded. In contrast to the “Multi-ethnic pluralism” or “Horizontal Mosaic” model to be found in Canada: under which immigrants have greater ease of access to citizenship and to incorporation into the political and socio-economic structure. Indeed, Canadian multiculturalism policy is intended not only to facilitate cultural maintenance but also to ensure that the resulting “Mosaic” is “horizontal” rather than “vertical”. A society where new immigrant minorities are able to achieve parity of socio-economic opportunities with the majority (there are, however, inequities, social divisions, status differentials, rankings, and other forms of social and ethnic stratification within Canadian society…).

 

 

CONCLUDING REMARKS

 

·   Immigration in the Political agenda in all countries of UE.

·   Immigration & new processes of interculturalism are challenging the social and political structures of Europe, parrticularly in ‘New’ countries of immigration, such as Spain.

·   Legislation on immigration is still undeveloped with respect to the design of a comprehensive policy of immigration.

·   Access to citizenship and integration policies are limited because immigrants are still seen as temporary workers (guestworkers).

·   Acquisition of citizenship is a fundamental factor for integration of immigrants.

·   The fact that “Integration” is a two-way process of accomodation between newcomers and the host population, is disregarded. Assimilation vs. Pluralistic integration…

·   Europe still looks at diversity as undermining… Cultural difference is seen, in general, as a Threat.

·   Need for a Comprehensive policy of immigration à Incorporation of immigrants in a Plural democracy.

 

 

QUESTIONST AND ANSWERS – DEBATE

 

1) Dr. Jeffrey Reitz: Compare Spain to Canada, but also to U.S.A. Canada: multicultural model, and liberal tradition versus U.S.A: assimilation model, and conservative (republican) tradition… How does Spain look at both models? Illegal migration and control (similar in USA and in Spain).

 

Answer:

 

Regarding the differences between Canada and The States in terms of Multicultural versus Assimilation model, and how Spain looks at the two different models, and I could say that Spain (within the EU) is looking more at the model of the States than to that of Canada, but not necessarily the autonomous regions in Spain (such as Catalonia), which tells a lot about political models and the model of society wanted. If we take into account that Spain, as well the rest of the countries that belong to the European Union, has to operate within is that political frame, and that the EU wants to be another United States in political and economic terms, that explains many things... Take into account the different history of the USA and Canada… In the States, Black-Africans are 1/3 of the population, and due to the experience of racism and discrimination, they have struggled to be assimilated in terms of social and civic rights. In this sense, Canada has a very different history, regarding the social and political status of their immigrants.

 

2) Dr. Eric Fong: Are immigrants in Spain temporary or permanent?

 

Answer:

 

The immigration policy in Spain (EU) looks at immigrants as temporary, as guest workers. So, from the institutional point of view, there is no space for the immigrants to be any other than temporary. The inexplicit message is: "come, do your thing and go back home". So, if they come only temporarily, why to change the political and social structure? (of course, this is a fallacy). From the immigrant side, they are most likely not going to look at Spain as a place that they could or would permanently immigrate to. Canada, for instance, has more open policies for offering permanent settlement, and all what it represents. People see Canada as the place they want to make as their home and it's expected that they will be able to do that (although the reality is often that professionally most people's expectations are not accomplished; it’s clear that how professional credentials translate and are accepted by the Canadians is one of the main issues Canada has to work in...). Immigrants are not coming to Spain with the same expectations because there are not the same opportunities. But the reality is that when they come, once they are there, they create networks, etc. and may decide to stay. In other words: they look at Spain as a temporary place because they don't see it as a place where they can bring and develop their networks and culture; but they may end staying and figuring it out anyway. So let's say that they come with a temporary contract to work (according to the quota system of limited entries with a previous work contract); and then, when the contract expires, if they don't come back they become illegal residents; which, again, will have an impact on the social and political level (marginalisation, ghettoisation, etc.). So, it’s a situation that goes in circles...

 

3) Elke Winter: What’s the situation with gypsies in Spain in terms of discrimination and integration, compared to that of immigrants?

 

Answer:

 

Yes, there is a lot of discrimination and marginalisation still against gypsies. Actually, they are an ‘ethnic minority’ socially categorised as ‘immigrants’, but they are not immigrants!  So they are the "internal others". It is significant that in all sociological questionnaires concerning racial and ethnic attitudes (prejudices and stereotypes) in Spain, gypsies are always the group with lower status and towards whom there are more prejudices (for instance, concerning the rejection towards mixed marriage). See the following bibliography: 

- Calvo Buezas, Tomás (2000) Inmigración y racismo. Así sienten los jóvenes del siglo XXI, Madrid: Cauce.

- IMSERSO (1999) Los españoles y la inmigración, Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales, Col. Observatorio Permanente de la Inmigración.

- Rodríguez-García, Dan (2004) Inmigración y mestizaje hoy. Formación de matrimonios mixtos y familias transnacionales de población africana en Cataluña [Immigration and Hybridity Today. Mixed Marriages and Transnational Families Amongst African Migrants in Catalonia, Spain], Bellaterra: UAB, Servei de Publicacions (http://www.agapea.com/Inmigracion-y-mestizaje-hoy-formacion-de-matrimonios-mixtos-y-familias-transnacionales-de-poblacion-africana-en-Catalu%C3%B1a-n131012i.htm).

 

4)  Researcher in Alicante (Spain): Republicanism in France: Assimilation. Emphasis in Christianity in Spain: also Assimilation. 

 

Answer:

 

Yes, there is, for example, a disregard of the Muslim past of Spain… The feeling that the “social and cultural core” of Spain (identified as Christian) cannot change… Take into account that Muslims where in Spain for 800 years. During that period, Muslims, Christians and Jews lived together in a multicultural society, until 1492, when the Catholic Kings ordered the expulsion of Muslims and Jews.

 

5) Public: The autonomic (internal) diversity in Spain, is also a challenge…

 

Answer:

 

Yes, internal diversity and, at the same time, external diversity and interethnic relations, both processes are happening at the same time. It’s very complex…

 

6) Public: Are there differences by gender and immigration in Spain?

 

Answer:

 

Yes, there are immigrant flows more male dominated (e.g. Africans, Pakistanis) and other more feminised (e.g. Latin-American, Filipines).

 

 

7) Dr. Kenise Murphy: It seems that Europe is more a constructed society (assimilation perspective) versus Canada, an evolving society (pluralism), continuously constructing its core…

 

Answer:

 

Yes. But the idea of an “old core”, a completed (finished) social and cultural core, is not real. The key issue here is the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion, and how politicians use the idea of “old core” to promote immigration policies that tend to be exclusionary (i.e., “you don’t belong”…).